Chapter 14: How People Communicate in Negotiation? ROLE OF COMMUNICATION While it may seem obvious that how negotiators communicate is as important as what they have to say, research has examined different aspects of how people communicate in negotiation. We address three aspects related to the "how" of communication: the characteristics of language that communicators use, the use of non-verbal communication in negotiation, and the selection of a communication channel for sending and receiv- DISTORTION IN COMMUNICATION ing messages. Communication "works" to the degree that a wide variety of information- facts, opinions, feelings, preferences, and experiences - is completely and thoroughly shared, and accurately received and decoded, leading to mutual understanding. As most of us know from experience, human ROLE OF COMMUNICATION communication systems seldom perform optimally. Rather, the elements of the model we have described and the linkages among them are subject Understanding behavioural factors - to external factors that distort messages and their meaning, which inhibits comprehension and mutual understanding. We will explore how dis- 1. Personalities involved tortions occur in communication by looking at the individual elements that comprise the communication sequence. 1. Senders and receivers each have goals and objectives, they want to accomplish. 2. Reputation/Value/Motive/Image 3. Role of unconscious state ( Ego and Id) 2. Transmitters and receptors are the means through which information is sent and received. 4. Perception differences 3. Messages are the symbolic forms by which information is communicated. 4. Encoding is the process by which messages are put into symbolic form. 5. Environment in which communication is taking place 6. Role of sterilize 5. Channels are the conduits by which messages are carried from one party to another. 7. Role of ego 6. Decoding is the process of translating messages from their symbolic form into a form that makes sense. 7. Meanings are the facts, ideas, feelings, reactions, or thoughts that exist within individuals and act as a set of filters for interpreting the decoded 8. Role of halo effect messages. Decoding of communication requires understanding of the parties involved/context. 8. Feedback is the process by which the receiver reacts to the sender's message. Missed Parts of Reality 1. Invisible What is Communicated During Negotiation? (a) Belief and value Five different categories of communication that take place during negotiations and then consider the question of whether more communication is always better than less communication. b) Feeling 1. Offers and Counter-offers: According to Tutzauer (1992), "Perhaps the most important communications in a bargaining session are those that 2. Visible convey the disputants' offers and counter-offers." a) Needs 2. Information about Alternatives: Communication in negotiation is not limited to the exchange of offers and counter-offers. However, another (b) Motives important aspect that has been studied is how sharing information with the other party influences the negotiation process. (c) Attitude 3. Information about Outcomes: In a simulation study of negotiation, Thompson, Valley, and Kramer (1995) examined the effects of sharing (d) Behaviour different types of information-how the other party evaluated his or her success in the negotiation, and how this influenced negotiators' evaluations of their own success. Situation is understood through perception 4. Social Accounts: Another type of communication that occurs during negotiation consists of the "social accounts" that negotiators use to explain things to the other party. 5 . Communication about Process: Lastly, some communication is about the negotiation process itself - how well it is going or what procedures might be adopted to improve the situation.Facial expression - pleasant, smiling, open, closed - My Perception of the context Voice - clear, high-pitched, hesitant, soft, authentic - Your perception of conte - My information perception -Your information percept Attitude - friendly, dictatorial, passive Listening Communication Motivationa In case of an aggressiveness by the opposite side - do not lose your nerve, keep calm and follow some of the following: Listen C2 Me C3 You Look interested. ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN BARGAINING Inquire with questions. A negotiator has to be an effective communicator in order to influence the behaviour of the opposite side to gain satisfactory response - S Stay on target - avoid digression, come back to topic Language - verbal-written T Body language Test understanding - test whether both the sides are understanding Listening the same things or different things. Researches have proved that the communication effectiveness is as follows: E Evaluate the message - real mean- 55% visual ing of saying - sometimes 'no' 37% tone and voice means 'yes'. 8% words N Neutralize your feelings - less of in- terruptions - more understanding. Language Keep thinking: We speak about 120 words per minute and are capable of listening to 240 words per minute. Do not panic. Build in pauses for What we say through language is not always what we intend to say. A good negotiator tries to check whether his message has been correctly creative thinking. decoded. For example, the case of two sisters fighting for orange is characterised by - Keep the best till last: Do not fall in trap by opening every thing too early. Rather, encourage the opposite side to open all their demands and concern 1. Simple Language before you resolve them. 2. No legal phrase Do not hang-up on deadlines: There has never been a deadline which is non-negotiable. 3. Personal Touch Constraints and variables are inter-changeable: Nothing is fixed. Body Language Listen, listen and listen: Take note, encourage them to continue speaking. Body language plays very important role in encouraging or discouraging the opposite side. Body language is impression that we create by our Let them complete what they want to say: Often objections come when the other side is pushed too far. behavior and mannerisms. Use silence: Speak at appropriate times - let opposition come with more information during your silence. Examples Use of Language Eye contact - direct, evasive, hesitant, dominating Five linguistic dimensions of making threats: Posture - upright, vigorous, nervous1. The use of polarized language, in which negotiators use positive words when speaking of their own positions (e.g., generous, reasonable, or frequent use of profanity) and low intensity conveys weak feelings. even-handed) and negative words when referring to the other party's position (e.g., tight-fisted, unreasonable, or heavy-handed). 4. The degree of lexical diversity (i.e., the command of a broad, rich vocabulary), where high levels of lexical diversity denote comfort and 2. The conveyance of verbal immediacy (a measure of intended immediacy, urgency, or relative psychological distance), either high and intended competence with language, and low levels denote discomfort, anxiety, or inexperience. to engage or compel the other party ("OK, here is the deal" or "I take great care to ...") or low and intended to create a sense of distance or 5. The extent of high-power language style, with low power denoted by the use of verbal hedges, hesitations or politeness to the point of defer- aloofness ("Well, there it is" or "One should take great care to ...."). ence and subordination, and high power denoted by verbal dominance, clarity and firmness of expression, and self-assurance. The degree of language intensity, in which high intensity conveys strong feelings to the recipient (as with statements of affirmation or theUSE OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION communication that would otherwise occur via telephone, face-to-face, or perhaps not at all. Accordingly, we also need to understand how e- Much of what people communicate to one another is transmitted with non-verbal communication. Examples include facial expressions, body mail communication differs from conventional writing or how interaction is affected when people choose to use e-mail rather than communicate language, head movements, and tone of voice, to name just a few. Some non-verbal acts, called attending behaviours, are particularly important through higher social presence channels. in connecting with another person during a coordinated interaction like negotiation. There behaviours let the other know that you are listening Top ten Rules for Virtual Negotiation and prepare the other party to receive your message. We will discuss three important attending behaviours: eye contact, body position, and encouraging. 1. Take steps to create a face-to-face relationship before negotiation, or early on, so that there is a face or voice behind the e-mail. Make Eye Contact: Dishonest people and cowards are not suppose to be able to look people in the eye. 2. Be explicit about the normative process to be followed during the negotiation. Adjust Body Position: Parents frequently advise their children about how to stand and sit, particularly when they are in formal settings such as 3. If others are present in a virtual negotiation (on either your side or theirs) make sure everyone knows who is there and why. school, church, or dinner parties. 4. Pick the channel (face-to-face, videophone, voice, fax or e-mail, etc.) that is most effective at getting all the information and detail on the table Non-verbally Encourage or Discourage what the other says. so that it can be fully considered by both sides. 5. Avoid "flaming; when you must express emotion, label the emotion explicitly so the other knows what it is and what's behind it. SECTION OF A COMMUNICATION CHANNEL Formal turn-taking is not strictly necessary, but try to synchronise offers and counter-offers. Speak up if it is not clear "whose turn it is". Communication is experienced differently when it occurs through different channels. We may think of negotiation as typically occurring face-to- face-an assumption reinforced by the common metaphor of the "negotiation table." But the reality is that people negotiate through a variety of 7. Check out assumptions you are making about the other's interests, offers, proposals, or conduct. It means less information about the other communication media: over the telephone, in writing, and increasingly through electronic channels such as e-mail, instant messaging, and tele- party and a greater chance that inferences will get you in trouble, so ask questions. conferencing systems. The use of network-mediated information technologies in negotiation is sometimes referred to as virtual negotiations. The 8. In many virtual negotiations (e.g., e-mail), everything is communicated in writing, so be careful not to make unwise commitments that can be use of a particular channel shapes both perceptions of the communication task at hand and norms regarding appropriate behavior; accordingly, used against you. Neither should you take undue advantage of the other party in this way; discuss and clarify until all agree. channel variations have potentially important effects on negotiation process and outcomes. 9. It may be easier to use unethical tactics in virtual negotiation because facts are harder to verify. But resist the temptation: The consequences For our purposes here, the key variation that distinguishes one communication channel from another is social presence, the ability of a channel are just as severe, and perhaps more so, given the incriminating evidence available when virtual negotiations are automatically archived. to carry and convey subtle social cues from sender to receiver that go beyond the literal text of the message itself. For example, as an alternative 10. Not all styles work equally well in all settings. Work to develop a personal negotiation style (collaboration, competition, etc.) that fits properly to face-to-face interaction, the telephone preserves one's ability to transmit social cues through inflection or tone of voice, but forfeits the ability with the communication channel you are using. One of the most difficult aspects of negotiation is the actual give-and-take that occurs at to communicate through facial expressions or physical gestures. In written communication, there are only the words and symbols on paper, al- the table. Should I stick with this point, or is it time to fold? Should I open the bidding or wait for the other side to take the lead? It requires though one's choice of words and the way they are arranged can certainly convey tone, (in) formality, and emotion. good judgement to make these choices. E-mail, as an increasingly ubiquitous mode of personal and organizational communication, can be viewed as simply another form of written communication that happens to involve electronic transmission. There are, however, important distinctions between e-mail and other forms How to improve Communication in Negotiation? of written communication. Many people, treating e-mail as highly informal medium, are comfortable sending messages that are stylistically or Three main techniques are available for improving communication in negotiation: the use of questions, listening, and role reversal. Each of these grammatically unpolished in situations (such as on the job) where they would never send a carelessly written communication on paper. Some s discussed in more detail ahead. people incorporate text-based emotions to convey emotional social cues in their messages (the notorious smiley face is the best-known emotion). Some research on interpersonal and small-group communication through computers indicates that the lack of social cues lowers communicator The Use of Questions inhibition and leads to more aggressive communication behavior that is unrestrained by social norms, such as flaming. However, much of the One of the most common techniques for clarifying communication and eliminating noise and distortion is the use of questions. Nierenberg research into computer-mediated communication has focused on anonymous interaction. It is not clear that reduced social cues have the same (1976) emphasized that questions are essential elements in negotiations for securing information; asking good questions enables negotiators to effect in a communication context, such as negotiation, where the parties are known to each other, and in fact, may know each other quite well. secure a great deal of information about the other party's position, supporting arguments, and needs Treating e-mail as just another vehicle for written communication is analytically simplistic because e-mail interactions frequently substitute forListening 2. When the parties' positions are fundamentally compatible with each other, role reversal is likely to produce acceptable results (cognitive and "Active listening" and "reflecting" are terms commonly used in the helping professions such as counselling and therapy. Counsellors recognize attitudinal change) that communications are frequently loaded with multiple meanings and that the counsellor must try to identify these different meanings 3. Although role reversal may induce greater understanding of the other party's position and highlight possible areas of similarity, it is not without making the communicator angry or defensive. In the decades since Carl Rogers advocated this key communication dynamic, interest in necessarily effective overall as a means of inducing agreement between parties. listening skills, and active listening in particular, has continued to grow, both in general communication contexts and in the specific domain of business and organizational settings. There are three major forms of listening Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations 1. Passive listening involves receiving the message while providing no feedback to the sender about the accuracy or completeness of reception. As negotiations move towards a close with agreement in sight, negotiators must attend to two key aspects of communication and negotiation Sometimes, passive listening is itself enough to keep a communicator sending information. Some people like to talk and are uncomfortable simultaneously: the avoidance of fatal mistakes and the achievement of satisfactory closure in constructive manner. with long silences. A negotiator whose counterpart is talkative may find that the best strategy is to sit and listen while the other party even- Do you have a "Good" Agreement? tually works into, or out of, a position on his or her own. Is there a preamble in which the intent of the agreement is spelled out clearly? 2. Acknowledgment is the second form of listening, slightly more active than passive listening. When acknowledging, receivers occasionally nod Are all the issues of interest to all parties addressed? their heads, maintain eye contact, or interject responses like "I see," "mm-hmm," "interesting," "really," "sure," "go on," and the like. These responses are sufficient to keep communicators sending messages, but a sender may misinterpret them as the receiver's agreement with his Are all the proposals workable? or her position, rather than as simple acknowledgments of receipt of the message. Have all parties affected by the agreement been consulted? 3. Active listening is the third form. When receivers are actively listening, they restate or paraphrase the sender's message in their own language. For each point of agreement, is it crystal clear what you have agreed to, including what is to be done, by whom, by what time, and how? Gordon (1977) provides the following examples of active listening: Does the agreement make sense in total? Sender: I don't know how I am going to untangle this messy problem. Is the agreement reasonable and equitable? Receiver: You're really stumped on how to solve this one. Have you considered the major barriers to fulfilling the agreement? Sender: Please, don't ask me about that now. Do you have a vehicle for managing disagreements arising out of this agreement? Receiver: Sounds like you are awfully busy right now. Is it clear to all parties what this vehicle is and how to use it? Sender: I thought the meeting today accomplished nothing. Receiver: You were very disappointed with our session. Avoiding Fatal Mistakes Achieving closure in negotiation generally involves making decisions to accept offers, to compromise priorities, to trade off across issues with the Role Reversal other party, or to take some combination of these steps. Such decision-making processes can be divided into four key elements: framing, gather- 1. Role reversal is effective in producing cognitive changes (greater understanding of the other party's position) and attitude changes (perceived ing intelligence, coming to conclusions, and learning from feedback (Russo and Schoemaker, 1989). similarities between the two positions)