CHAPTER 7 Coaching for Per fo rm ance Once you have begun to delegate, you need to be able to work with your direct reports so that they are successful in their assignments. This managerial skill is referred to as coaching. Effective coaching will lead to your ultimate role of achieving results through and with others. In this chapter, we will: Explore the importance of coaching as a key performance management skill Uncover your strengths as a coach Describe techniques to improve performance effectively Plan a coaching session Why Coach? Simply put, you coach to enhance the development of skills and the performance of your direct reports. You cannot improve employee performance without coaching. Given these 115 .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:20 PS 116 Management Skills for New Managers reasons to coach, why is it more important now than it has ever been? As stated in Chapter 1, companies have been going through revolutionary changes in the past few decades. Managers are now required to increase productivity with fewer resources than in previous years. Industries have developed in which the rate of change in product offerings happens at lightning speedproducts that are not yet on the market are already outdated! In order to meet the demands of the marketplace and company investors, managers must create a culture of continuous learning. The old ''command and control'' approach to managing direct reports has become ineffective. Managers must improve the performance of their direct reports through coaching and facilitating their growth and development. What Is Coaching? Coaching Is the Process of Creating the Environment and Building the Relationships That Enhance the Development of Skills and the Performance of Both the Direct Reports and the Manager Typically, we think of coaching as an opportunity to improve someone else's performance so that the organization's goals and objectives are achieved. And that is how it is used most of the time. However, as manager, you not only have the responsibility to have your goals met but you also have the responsibility to ensure that the work environment is a positive one for all your direct reports. This means that you may also need to address environmental and personal concerns. For instance, you may nd that there are times when you need to coach your direct reports on issues that are not related to the actual work they do, but that denitely inuence the environment and the relationships within your work group. There may be personal issues that require your attention such .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:21 PS Coaching for Performance 117 as attendance, tardiness, hygiene, or proper dress. Addressing these concerns falls into coaching as well. Coaching is one of a manager's key skills for managing an employee's performance. The performance management skills of coaching (covered in this chapter) and delegating (covered in Chapter 6) will help you do what a manager is paid to do: achieve results through and with others. Why Coaching Continues to Grow in Importance In today's changing workplace, coaching is the favored strategy for developing individuals. Coaching prepares employees to broaden their responsibilities and to work more autonomously, and to take more initiative in solving problems. Total Quality Management. The rst-line manager's role is to be a coach rather than an overseer. Coaching provides support to direct reports by helping them to develop solutions to problems, rather than by telling them what to do. Structure of Organization. Flat organizations have created increased areas of control so that the manager must be more of a coach than a director of specic work activities in order to accomplish all of his goals. Staff Motivation. Today's employees are less tolerant of an authoritative, controlling management style. As new generations come into the workplace, it will be increasingly important to pay attention to what motivates different people and to offer them the opportunities to become successful. Organizational Changes. Organizations are constantly changing. Coaching is particularly important in today's climate of global economy, rapid changes, heightened customer expectations, and increased competition. Coaching Experiences Many of you have had coaching experiences (either as the coach or the one being coached). While all coaching experi- .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:21 PS 118 Management Skills for New Managers ences have an impact on us in some way, individuals are especially vulnerable to coaching experiences when they are the ones being coached. Some of these experiences may have been positive, and others may have had a negative impact. The impact of a negative coaching session on an individual can be long lasting. But the benets of a positive coaching experience are not only long lasting but also benecial both to you as a manager and to your employees. The goal of this chapter is to help you become an effective coach to your direct reports so that their coaching experiences will be both positive and benecial. To best understand the implications of effective or ineffective coaching, think about coaching sessions you have personally had and what your response has been. Perhaps you had a manager who believed in the old fear-and-intimidation style of coaching. Or maybe your managers have been more progressive in their coaching and worked with you for your success. How did you feel after experiencing: A Negative Coaching Experience? .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:22 PS Coaching for Performance 119 A Positive Coaching Experience? How would you like your direct reports to feel after they have worked with you in a coaching session? Would you like them to feel positive so that they are motivated to do the work? Learning effective coaching skills will make it possible for the outcomes of the coaching sessions to be positive. Benets of Coaching We have said that coaching is an important skill for new managers. And we now know that coaching can be related to a task that needs to be accomplished, to an employee's commitment to the work she is doing, or to an environmental issue. In any case, effective coaching is a major component in creating an environment in which growth, development, and success for all can be achieved. Although coaching takes time, it can save time in the long run. When you have created a safe environment for your direct reports, so that they are comfortable talking about their development needs with you, you will have the opportunity to grow your staff members into high achievers. .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:22 PS 120 Management Skills for New Managers Coaching is a powerful skill that can be used to maintain and improve performance and to develop new skills and enthusiasm that will help your direct reports exceed current performance and enhance their job satisfaction. When you become an effective coach, you have the ability to build a group of condent, self-motivated achievers. Obviously, there are many benets of coaching to all levels in an organization, or companies would not encourage their managers to take the time to learn to use this skill. Let's look at some of those benets: Benets to the Organization Helps the bottom line since more work is done at a lower cost Attracts high-quality job seekers because people want to work for companies that develop their people Turnover is reduced because employees want to stay Shareholders are pleased with the improved nancial statements Benets to You, the Manager Get the work done the way it needs to be done Have employees that want to work for you Are able to take time to do the work you need to do because your direct reports are able to do their work Have a succession plan in case you want to move to a different position Produce a better end product because of more sharing of ideas Can get more work done when people are able to do it Your stress level is reduced Take time to go to lunch or on vacation Benets to Your Direct Reports Feel more enthusiastic about work Will be better performers and perhaps get a higher raise .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:23 PS Coaching for Performance 121 Will enjoy what they do because they do it well Feel more in control of the work they do Believe that they are working for a manager who cares about them Are motivated to come to work What Situations Will You Coach? When the benets are understood, and you have made a commitment to learn quality coaching, you can then consider what situations occur in your workplace about which you will actually need to coach your direct reports. There are typically four situations that require this skill, and those situations occur on a regular basis. 1. Good-Work Coaching. Letting people know what they do well. When you recognize good work, it will be repeated. Typically this coaching can be done on the spot and does not require the planning ahead of setting a time and location. 2. Developmental Opportunities Coaching. Talking to your direct reports about new opportunities that will enhance their careers through growth and development. This is the coaching that is initially used in conjunction with delegation. 3. Poor-Work Coaching. Letting people know what they need to do differently. Make sure that you do this in a private place with a positive approach. 4. Poor Personal Habits Coaching. Letting people know what they are doing that is causing problems (being late, interrupting others, poor personal hygiene) and using your best listening skills as you help them identify what is causing the problem and determine a solution. Setting Up the Coaching Session After you have determined that there will be a coaching meeting (this may not be required for the ''good-work coaching''), .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:24 PS 122 Management Skills for New Managers taking the necessary time to plan for that meeting will have a major impact on its effectiveness. The little time this will take will pay off by providing a clear understanding of what you want to accomplish. The rst consideration is logistical. Remember to: Set up a time with your direct report that is convenient for both of you. It is important for both of you to be able to pay attention to the conversation. If other work or personal issues distract either person, then it will be difcult to really listen to one another. Find a location that is appropriate for the coaching you will be doing. If the purpose is to correct a performance problem, then it must be done in a private room. The second consideration is mental preparedness. Verify that your direct report is ready and willing to be coached. There may be times when the individual does not want the news he thinks he will be getting, so he may need to be encouraged by you. One way to encourage people in this situation is to focus your request for the meeting on the benets for the person, that is, if the person has mistakes in his work, he is required to take the time to redo it, and his performance rating will be negatively affected. Correcting the problem will speed up the work he does, and improve his rating. The person's stress level will likely be reduced with this action. Manage yourself so that you are able to focus on the problem/concern at hand while you are in the meeting. When you are planning a coaching meeting, it is important to think in advance about the desired results of this meeting with your direct report. Your meeting will be more effective and have better outcomes when you plan in advance for it. Planning for these sessions will help to ensure that your goals of improving the performance of your direct reports are met. In addition to planning your coaching meeting, it is im- .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:24 PS Coaching for Performance 123 portant to utilize effective communication techniques while conducting the meeting. The following techniques will provide some suggestions on effective communication during the meeting. Six-Step Coaching Model The model in Figure 7-1 (beginning on next page) will assist in both the planning and conducting of your meetings. Coaching and the Performance Management Process Coaching and delegation are integral parts of the performance management process. As your direct reports grow in their skills and experience, you will be delegating increasingly complex tasks to them. This will require coaching them to be certain that they are able to do what you need them to do. As a manager, you have the responsibility to be certain that all your direct reports are utilized to their fullest potential. Coaching is how you will ensure that happens. Plan to coach your staff members regularly, whether they are performing at an exceptional level or need to improve their skills or behaviors. The Coaching Planning Worksheet provides the structure to plan for either type of a coaching meeting. The Coaching Planning Worksheet The Coaching Planning Worksheet (see page 127) is a tool to use in preparation for meetings with your direct reports. Take the time to answer each question before you start your coaching session. This will help you to stay on target and not be sidetracked by the individual. This focus enables you to maintain a professional position when you are feeling uncomfortable. .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:25 PS 124 Management Skills for New Managers Figure 7-1. Six-step coaching model. Planning Considerations Communication Techniques Step 1: Set the Stage: Why are you holding this meeting? What instigated it? Is it a problem that needs addressing? or Do you want to offer your direct report an opportunity to take on some new responsibilities? Perhaps you simply want to meet to check the status on annual objectives. ClarifyBe Specific. Give clear statements about perceived performance problems without using accusory language. Identify the problem. Outline new responsibilities. Scope the Related Problem Limit statements to a single problem or two closely related problems. Discuss why it is important that changes occur. Be Future-Oriented State the desired change; do not request reasons for failure. Step 2: Formulate and Focus the Issues: What is happening? What questions will you ask to determine what is really happening or what your direct report is thinking? How will you determine what the causes of any problems might be? Promote Self-Discovery. Ask questions, draw out what is happening. Discover the possibilities. Pay Attention. Listen actively. Don't interrupt. Acknowledge. Give verbal and nonverbal cues indicating your involvement in the conversation. Gather Information. Ask questions, acknowledge, probe, reflect, and summarize. .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:27 PS Coaching for Performance 125 Figure 7-1. (Continued) Planning Considerations Communication Techniques Step 3: Get Agreement: How will you know there is agreement on the situation? What will you look and listen for when discussing the situation? How will you ask for agreement on the problem? Confirm. Close the loopreach mutual agreement on problems and causes. Indicate Respect. Don't use behaviors that ridicule, generalize, or judge. Affirm. Comment on your direct report's strengths and positive prospects. Step 4: Generate Possible Solutions and/or Alternatives: What approach will you take to meet your objectives? What will you say to encourage your direct report to offer solutions? Will you suggest training for improved or expanded knowledge or, perhaps, partnering with another direct report for growth? Brainstorm. Generate as many possibilities as possible. Draw Out the Consequences. Weigh the upside and downside of each alternative. Decide. Determine the alternative that best meets the situation. (continues) .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:29 PS 126 Management Skills for New Managers Figure 7-1. (Continued) Planning Considerations Communication Techniques Step 5: Set Goals and Develop an Action Plan: What are the actions to be taken, and what are the consequences? What actions will you expect your direct report to take as a result of this meeting? Make sure to include some specific timelines with the actions. Determine what the consequences, positive or negative, will be if your suggestions/requirements are not followed. Is there a new position for the person, or will he be more prepared for a promotion? Plan. Build strategies and agree on follow-up, including milestones and timelines. Strategize. Consider training, one-on-one mentoring, coaching, and resources. Recap. Review key points to reinforce common understanding and ownership. Step 6: Monitor: What will happen next? Are there other actions that will be taken? Will another meeting be scheduled? .......................... 10713$ Follow Through. Set up follow-up processes, including who, when, and how. $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:31 PS Coaching for Performance 127 Coaching Planning Worksheet Meeting Date Employee Name Learning phase for this task/situation Step 1 Set the Stage. Describe in detail why this meeting is being held. Step 2 Formulate and Focus the Issue. What approach will you suggest to improve or enhance performance in this situation? Step 3 Get Agreement. How will you get agreement from your direct report that this coaching action will be benecial for him or her? Step 4 Generate Possible Solutions and/or Alternatives. How will you encourage your direct report to brainstorm with you? Step 5 Set Goals and Develop an Action Plan. With your direct report, set specic plans that include actions, timelines, and consequences, if appropriate. Step 6 Monitor (Next Steps). What is your plan to follow up? .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:32 PS 128 Management Skills for New Managers A Practice Coaching Session Using the Six-Step Coaching Model and the Coaching Planning Worksheet, plan a coaching session for the following situation as if you were Sandy. WHAT DO I DO NOW? Sandy, Marketing Manager: The Situation as Sandy Sees It: I hired Bobby about six months ago as a marketing associate in my organization. Bobby is always bursting with ideas, but never the details. Having all the information related to a project is not a top priority for him. There is always some detail missing. When I mention this to him, he shrugs off my comments or makes a joke. During discussions, Bobby always wants to decide quickly, never giving others a chance to talk. Bobby dominates our group discussions with ideas he has developed. Others rarely have a chance to be heard. During team meetings, I am sure it is obvious to the others that I am impatient with Bobby. I have to interrupt Bobby so that others have a chance to participate and offer their ideas. Since the beginning, Bobby has been very willing to tackle new challenges and I'm pleased with that aspect of Bobby's behavior. I do wish that there would be more consideration shown for others. However, Bobby has not picked up on the group dynamics. I don't really want to confront Bobby because there are so many good attributes being displayed. But I am nding it difcult not to say something about the lack of detail and the communication skills Bobby needs to develop. I really wonder what to say and how to go about this. You are Sandy. You have decided to call Bobby in for coaching on how to work more effectively with you and the other team members. .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:33 PS Coaching for Performance 129 Steps you need to take: Plan the coaching session using the planning worksheet. Use the Six-Step Coaching Model during the session. Anticipate Bobby's reaction based on what you might expect from one of your own direct reports. Coaching Planning Worksheet Employee Name Meeting Date Learning phase for this task/situation Step 1 Set the Stage. Describe in detail why this meeting is being held. Step 2 Formulate and Focus the Issue. What approach will you suggest to improve or enhance performance in this situation? Step 3 Get Agreement. How will you get agreement from your direct report that this coaching action will be benecial for him or her? Step 4 Generate Possible Solutions and/or Alternatives. How will you encourage your direct report to brainstorm with you? .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:33 PS 130 Management Skills for New Managers Step 5 Set Goals and Develop an Action Plan. With your direct report, set specic plans that include actions, timelines, and consequences, if appropriate. Step 6 Monitor (Next Steps). What is your plan to follow up? What Would You Do in This Situation? Here is another case study. Read the following situation and decide how you would conduct the year-end appraisal session. SCENARIO: Kate has just received her yearly performance evaluation. The evaluation was done by you, her boss (with input from three of her subordinates and one peer). Your organization uses 360-degree feedback as a performance evaluation mechanism. Kate has performed satisfactorily on everything except in the area of communication. You want to send her to a three-day training program to help her develop her skills. You also want to help her by coaching her. Steps you need to take: Plan the coaching session using the planning worksheet Use the Six-Step Coaching Model during the session Anticipate Kate's reaction based on what you might expect from one of your own direct reports. .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:34 PS Coaching for Performance 131 Coaching Planning Worksheet Meeting Date Employee Name Learning phase for this task/situation Step 1 Set the Stage. Describe in detail why this meeting is being held. Step 2 Formulate and Focus the Issue. What approach will you suggest to improve or enhance performance in this situation? Step 3 Get Agreement. How will you get agreement from your direct report that this coaching action will be benecial for him or her? Step 4 Generate Possible Solutions and/or Alternatives. How will you encourage your direct report to brainstorm with you? Step 5 Set Goals and Develop an Action Plan. With your direct report, set specic plans that include actions, timelines, and consequences, if appropriate. Step 6 Monitor (Next Steps). What is your plan to follow up? .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:34 PS 132 Management Skills for New Managers The Case of the Real Situation Think of a situation you have back at work that will require that you do some coaching when you return to the workplace. Take a few minutes and plan for that coaching session, using the Coaching Planning Worksheet. Consider the following in your planning: What objections will your direct report have to your coaching? What do you think her perspective will be on the situation? What attitude will she have during the coaching? What can you do to make sure that there is some receptivity to your ideas? Coaching Planning Worksheet Employee Name Meeting Date Learning phase for this task/situation Step 1 Set the Stage. Describe in detail why this meeting is being held. Step 2 Formulate and Focus the Issue. What approach will you suggest to improve or enhance performance in this situation? Step 3 Get Agreement. How will you get agreement from your direct report that this coaching action will be benecial for him or her? .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:34 PS Coaching for Performance 133 Step 4 Generate Possible Solutions and/or Alternatives. How will you encourage your direct report to brainstorm with you? Step 5 Set Goals and Develop an Action Plan. With your direct report, set specic plans that include actions, timelines, and consequences, if appropriate. Step 6 Monitor (Next Steps). What is your plan to follow up? .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:35 PS 134 Management Skills for New Managers Action Planning Notes In order to achieve success with your performance as a manager and to have a successful team, it is important to take the time to consider what actions you will take at work. This will become the foundation for the nal activity in this book. Some examples are: Provide useful feedback on work through effective coaching. Meet with an individual to improve his or her attendance. Which members of your team need to have their performance improved, either for a task-related need or a personal issue? When will you meet with them? Individual Action .......................... 10713$ $CH7 05-26-04 08:31:35 PS Managing employees in a way that creates mutual success for them and their organizations can be challenging, but this primer shares the common and novel theories and practices that can be applied to meet that objective. Managing Performance A Practical Perspective on Managing Employee Performance Mike Schraeder and Mark Jordan he management of employee performance is regarded as an essential function of organizational managers.''^ In fact, the sustained competitiveness of organizations might well hinge on the overall effectiveness of this management function.^ This is not particularly surprising given the widespread observations that employees represent a significant investment for organizations. It is important to note, employees should be viewed as an investment, not an expense; this distinction recognizes that employees' individual and collective performances play a vital role in helping organizations achieve their overall institutional objectives. Efforts to understand dynamics associated with managing employee performance, improving employee performance, and adapting related methodologies to best meet the needs of employees and organizations should increase the likelihood T THE JOURNAL FOR CLITY & PARTICIPATION Juiy 2011 of organizational success. This article provides a practical perspective on issues related to performance management by summarizing major approaches used at the organizational level, as well as offering insight into individual-level factors that represent possible elements influencing, determining, or contributing to related individual performance. Organizational Facets of Managing Employee Performance As previously mentioned, employees represent a significant resource for their organizations; therefore, oversight of this investment through human resource management practices represents a significant financial commitment for most organizations." The importance of employee performance to the overall success of organizations could explain partially why numerous methods for monitoring, managing. and improving employee performance have been developed. A comprehensive treatment of all employee performance management tools and techniques is beyond the scope of this article, but several common approaches merit consideration given their prevalent use. Prior to summarizing these common techniques, however, it seems instructive to consider the context within which the management of performance occurs. At a macro level, the vast majority of performance issues and performance management initiatives occur within the context of organizations. Each organization has a culture reflecting unique values and norms guiding or influencing employee behavior."^ An organization's culture serves as a valuable framework for employees, defining the organization's personality while also establishing ground rules for behaviors that are considered appropriate/desirable. These organizational identities and ground rules, in turn, embody numerous sub-elements of critical importance to the organization, including, but not limited to, organizational values, language, and interpersonal factors. Importantly, these cultural norms also influence the nature of communication that occurs within organizations. Communication is becoming an increasingly important function of managers' and, therefore, must be included within this context. Its importance is reinforced further by its role related to managing employees' performance through outlets such as performance appraisals, informal feedback, coaching, training, setting goals, and facilitating employee involvement/participation in key change initiatives. On a related note, individual employees and managers may not share a common understanding regarding performance expectations." This observation further highlights the importance of communication as a foundational element associated with effective performance management approaches. Common Organization-Level Methods of Managing Performance Organizations have numerous models, tools, and strategies to assist in managing employee performance. As this article addresses practical aspects of this topic, it may be informative to briefly acknowledge components of a practical model. For example, Galpin describes a pragmatic model on performance improvement that includes performance measurement, rewards/recognition. goal setting, and coaching/feedback as important components.^ These, as well as other methods organizations commonly use to manage employee performance, are summarized below: Performance appraisal. There are numerous types of performance appraisals serving a variety of purposes, including measuring and documenting employee performance." In addition to serving as a measurement function, performance appraisals are a key component of employee performance management.'' Maximizing the utilization of employees may be enhanced through performance appraisals.'" The potential value of using appraisals as a performance management tool depends on the quality of the system; therefore, it is important to evaluate its potential quality and effectiveness. Furthermore, the overall effectiveness of performance management programs can be improved by ensuring that key performance expectations are delineated in employee job descriptions and are reflected in methods used to measure performance.^ Additionally, organizations using performance appraisals to manage employee performance should adopt/design appraisal methodologies that support the vision, culture, and goals of the institutions. Rewards (pay/benefits) and recognition. Rewards are a popular and commonly used technique to influence employee behavior and performance. ' ' As such, organizations may offer rewards, in the form of bonuses or other types of remuneration, to employees with the anticipation of evoking enhanced performance. To achieve this purpose, companies should provide the rewards in a timely manner, as close as possible to the time when the desired behavior occurred.'- Common perceptions of rewards typically are limited to monetary forms; however, non-monetary recognition can also serve as a valuable tool for influencing employee behavior." Recognition can be as simple as providing employees with a compliment on noteworthy performance. Regardless of the specific reward, it is important that organizations select rewards that employees will perceive as valuable. Training. It is well known that individual ability affects individual performance; therefore, initiatives to improve employees' abilities should www. asq. org/pub/jqp result in improved performance. Training is a common method organizations use to improve employees' abilities." Training can influence performance directly by improving job-related skills and abilities. It also can have indirect, positive effects on performance when employees perceive an organization's investment in training indicates that the organization values their contributions. Traditional classroom approaches to training still are used but now are augmented by alternate technologicallybased approaches such as online training, webinars, and video conferencing. Access to resources. It stands to reason that employees need access to required resources if they are expected to perform jobs in an effective and efficient manner. Consequently, when substandard performance is a concern, managers may want to investigate whether employees have the resources necessary for their jobs.'" These resources run the gamut, from office supplies, computer equipment, software, and financial resources to additional staffing. Goal setting. Establishing goals is an important activity for managing employee performance.^ Goals have a positive effect on employee motivation, driving individuals to accomplish them.''^ It is worth noting that the potential influence of goals on employee performance is predicated on the quality of those requisite goals. In his article on managing performance, Galpin also summarizes guidelines for setting effective goals, including the suggestion that employees should take part in developing goals that are short, offer a challenge but are achievable, and have a required timeframe.^ Participation and empowerment. Employees spend a significant portion of their adult lives engaged in the workplace and work-related activities. For many employees, their jobs represent an important aspect of their lives. It should not be surprising then, that employees want to have a voice in factors directly related to their work-lives. Avenues for employee participation vary, including involvement in setting goals and making decisions in the organization. The practice of allowing employees to provide input communicates to employees that they are valuable to the organization and that their values, opinions, needs, and ideas are also worthwhile. THE JOURNAL FOR QUALITY & PARTICIPATION July 2011 Coaching and feedback. Feedback is often provided to employees formally through performance appraisals.'" It can also come through coaching, which is recognized as a popular strategy for improving employee performance."" Organizations may benefit from providing managers with training related to coaching.'^ The investment in coaching not only provides employees with direct input regarding strategies for performance success, but it also fosters the development of relationships between the employees and their coaches. On the other hand, feedback approaches that are not implemented effectively actually may have a deleterious influence on employee performance.'** There are a number of characteristics associated with effective feedback. For example, specificity is noted commonly as a characteristic of effective feedback'" and should include attributes of performance related directly to the job tasks and job expectations. Providing employees with this information can be beneficial because employees may be more motivated as a consequence of seeing results.^ The advent of technological developments and the Internet have expanded particular tools for communicating feedback to employees and impacted the nature of interaction that occurs between supervisors and employees.^ Novel Approaches to Managing Performance The following approaches are used less frequently but have advantages, too: Mentoring. A process or technique similar to coaching is mentoring. Mentoring could have been discussed in the previous section, but is placed here because most mentoring programs are not executed properly, thereby reducing their potential benefits to organizations and employees. Put into practice correctly, though, mentoring can be a powerful tool in assisting supervisors/leaders with managing performance. Whereas coaching typically seeks to improve a singular skill or competency, mentoring assists the employee/protege's long-term prospects in the organization by developing a relationship with a more experienced individual/mentor. Mentoring is a process whereby the mentor builds a relationship with a protg' and helps that individual understand the culture (e.g., values and beliefs, philosophies, etc.) of the organization and how to develop as an employee and individual within the organization. Although a lengthy discussion of this topic isn't possible in this article, it is valuable to note research that supports a positive link between mentorship and performance.'"' In the process, the mentor also can benefit from this relationship (e.g., in role performance and social status).^" It also stands to reason that good mentoring relationships will reduce the amount of misperceptions less experienced employees have with respect to their psychological contracts (e.g., unwritten beliefs regarding employee expectations of the organization). In concert with coaching and feedback, mentoring can serve as a powerful tool to enhance human performance. Positive organizational behavior (POB). POB is defined by Luthans as the "study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in today's workplace."-" Responding positively to employees can have constructive implications for employee morale and their subsequent motivation." More importantly, communicating and behaving in a more positive manner actually may improve performance.^' Indeed, research over the past five to 10 years increasingly indicates that there is a relationship between POB and performance.^"^' POB can work in concordance with many of the common methods discussed earlier in this article, including training, feedback and coaching, performance appraisal, and goal setting. The study of positive organizational behavior and positive psychology continues to evolve. Managers and organizations can leverage certain aspects of related theories, adopting habits that focus attention on helping employees achieve maximum potential by building on their strengths and positive attributes, rather than embarking on efforts to minimize weaknesses and less desirable characteristics. Innovative work design (flexibility and idiosyncratic work deals). Organizational changes often mirror changes at the societal level with the intent of aligning practices to be consistent with societal and stakeholder interests. As society changes, so do expectations of employees. Employees face an increasing set of demands related to their work- and non-work lives, prompting organizations to consider innovative ways to match institutional practices with individual needs to elicit sustained or improved performance. For example, many organizations currently allow employees higher degrees of flexibility in work hours, as well as location of work through modified schedules and telecommunicating. These unique working conditions and flexible practices fall under the umbrella of idiosyncratic deals, which are unique working conditions tailored to the needs of individuals, represent organizational attempts to match work expectations and conditions with the needs of employees.-'' For example, a university faculty member needed to relocate to tend to his spouse's medical issues. The university offered him an idiosyncratic deal using a combination of telecommuting and commuting as opposed to taking a leave of absence or resigning. Both the organization and the employee benefitted. Important Facets of Individuals Associated With Employee Performance By default, management of employee performance is limited to aspects that supervisors can influence. It is also valuable to recognize that other individual factors potentially can influence performance but would be difficult, impractical, or impossible to manage. For example, personal traits often are considered during the hiring process with the objective of trying to select individuals who best fit the characteristics of a certain job. Certain dimensions, such as conscientiousness, have been linked with employee performance." Although personal traits don't lend themselves to being managed, it is valuable for managers to understand that they may serve as predictors of employee performance. The following individual facets can be managed: Task/role-specific performance. Feedback was dis- cussed previously, but managers are cautioned to refrain from assuming that all feedback is equally worthwhile. Feedback should be related to the specific task performed.'* The ideal is to delineate the expectations clearly related to tasks in employee job descriptions and then measure them on a concurrent basis as a component of the performance management program. Recognizing and rewarding the specifically required task behavior may perpetuate www. asq. org/pub/jqp successful task performance. On the other hand, minimize undesirable task performance through task-specific training, as well as the use of taskproficient coaches, mentors, or role models. Extra-role performance (organizational citizenship behavior OCB]). Well-developed job descriptions should provide employees with a comprehensive framework outlining salient performance and behavioral expectations. There are, however, employee behaviors that have a positive effect on organizations but may fall outside the formal structure of job descriptions. These typically are considered discretionary in nature and are described as extra-role behaviors or OCB.^" In a practical sense, these are viewed as employee behaviors that go above and beyond what is expected. There are several dimensions of OCB with the potential to contribute to improved employee performance. Although a detailed discussion of these dimensions is beyond the scope of this article, a brief illustration may help reinforce the value of OCBs in relation to performance management. A veteran employee may exhibit OCB by volunteering to stay late (after his/her scheduled work hours) to assist a new employee in completing required tasks while simultaneously offering informal training and coaching by guiding the new employee to more effective and efficient methods for accomplishing the tasks. This OCB is an extra-role performance because it is unlikely to be included specifically in the job description. The realized performance management benefits might include increased confidence and selfefficacy of the new employee, as well as a more positive image of the organization. Performance gains of the veteran employee might be difficult to discern but probably would reflect in feelings of fulfillment and improved confidence. Willingness to adapt to change. Civen the dynamic nature of organizations' current environments, it is imperative that they remain adaptive to survive.^' Their ability to change successfully often hinges on the efforts of employees. It is also commonly understood that individuals tend to resist change, and there are many strategies available to bolster their willingness to accept change. Allowing employees to participate in planning and implementing a change, however, is a widely acclaimed approach for reducing resistance and increasing support for concomitant changes.^^ THE JOURNAL FOR QUALITY & PARTICIPATION July 2011 Permitting employees to participate in planning and implementing organizational changes fosters buy-in. This can have positive implications for managing change-related performance. In addition, employees gain valuable experience into the technical aspects and content of the change, fostering increased knowledge of how to structure the change and why the change may be necessary. Furthermore, their involvement reduces the need for additional, post-change training because they already are aware of important aspects of the change, including related performance expectations. -.A Innovation/creativity. Organizations covet employee creativity and innovation.'^ Their importance can be related, in part, to the pressures organizations face to continually adapt to changing competitive circumstances. Among other things, remaining competitive often requires organizations to develop new products, improve services, and modify organizational structures. Employees can offer insight regarding minor shifts in environmental contingencies that may serve as signs of larger shifts that are looming in the not-so-distant future. Furthermore, employees may provide ideas that lead to developing innovative products or services that could contribute to competitive advantages for the organization. To encourage employee performance related to innovation and creativity, organizations and managers must be willing to accept a certain amount of risk and uncertainty, allowing employees to make mistakes in the process of exploring unchartered options. Additionally, innovation and creative performance may be influenced by management practices that reward and recognize novel ideas that contribute to the mission of the organization. In some cases, innovation and creativity may become so important that organizations formalize related performance expectations into the performance appraisal process. Ethical conduct. It has been recommended that organizations consider including ethical conduct of employees in processes associated with managing their performance.'" Considering recent corporate scandals, flurries of media activity, and public outcries, organizational efforts to improve its employees' ethical conduct seem advisable. A variety of approaches are available to encourage ethical employee performance. For example, training on corporate ethics codes can help familiarize employees with the fundamental, ethical expectations of the organization. Additional training on strategies to deal effectively with ethical dilemmas also may contribute to improved performance. The use of coaches, mentors, and role models may prove valuable, too, if those fulfilling the roles provide employees with consistent, observable behaviors that represent acceptable ethical conduct. Other Considerations This article addresses major organizational and individual considerations related to managing employee performance. There are, however, less obvious aspects of organizations, which may be within managers' control that also may influence employee performance. For example, certain aspects of the organization's physical environment may have an effect." Even early studies in employee performance explored how certain workplace characteristics, such as intensity of light, affected employee performance. Among other things, recent attention regarding characteristics of the physical work environment has included the layout of furniture, noise levels, amount of workspace, and private versus shared work areas. Cultural differences associated with an employee's nation of origin also may have some effect on employee performance. Although cultural differences cannot be managed, an awareness of them can assist managers in promoting a more conscientious performance management program. Conclusion This article incorporated important aspects of contemporary thinking related to managing employee performance. Of course, the principles and practices related to managing employee performance are likely to change over time." This sets in motion the perpetual need for managers and scholars to remain vigilant in understanding shifting employee needs and dynamic organizational contingencies that have implications on the process of managing employee performance. References 1. Allen I. Kraut, Patricia R. 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Schwab, Performance in Organizations: Determinants and Appraisal, Scott Foresman and Company, 1973. 14. Max Messimer, "Managing Employee Performance Issues," Strategic Finance, 2003, Vol. 85, No. 5, pp. 13-14. 15. lerald Greenberg, Behavior in Organizations, 10th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2011. 16. Patrick J. Kiger, "How Performance Management Reversed NCCI's Fortunes," Workforce, 2002, Vol. 81, No. 5, pp. 48-51. 17. Eman Salman Taie, "Coaching as an Approach to Enhance Performance," The Journal for Quality and Participation, 2011, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 34-38. 18. Angelo S. DeNisi and Avraham N. Kluger, "Feedback Effectiveness; Can 360-Degree Appraisals Be Improved?" Academy of Management Executive, 2000, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 129-139. 28. Carol C. Beinstock, Carol W. DeMoranville, and Rachel K. Smith, "Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Service Quality," Journal of Service Marketing, 2003, Vol. 17, No. 4/5, pp. 357-378. 29. 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The Effect of Mentoring on the lob Performance and Social Status of Mentors in China," Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 2009, Vol. 82, No. 4, pp. 871-895. 21. Fred Luthans, "Positive Organizational Behavior: Developing and Managing Psychological Strengths," Academy of Management Executive, 2002, Vol. 16, pp. 57-72. 22. Charles R. McConnell, "Managing Employee Performance," The Health Care Manager, 2004, Vol. 23, No. 3., pp. 273-283. Mike Schraeder Mike Schraeder is an associate professor of management in the Sorreil College of Business at Troy UniversityMontgomery Campus where he teaches a variety of management courses. His other professional work experience includes time in healthcare administration. Schraeder has a variety of research interests, topics related to organizational attitudes, and organizational including change, employee culture. His email address is mschraeder@troy.edu. 23. Sarah Lewis, Positive Psychology at Work, WileyBlackwell, 2011. 24. Sunil I. Ramlall, "Enhancing Employee Performance Through Positive Organizational Behavior," Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2008, Vol. 38, No. 6, pp. 1,580-1,600. 25. Arnold B. Bakker and Evanglia Demerouti, "Toward a Model of Work Engagement," Career Development International, 2008, Voi. 13, No. 3, pp. 209-223. 26. Severin Homung, Denise M. Rousseau, and lrgen Claser, "Why Supervisors Make Idiosyncratic Deals: Antecedents and Outcomes of 1-Deals From a Management Perspective," journal of Managerial Psychology, 2009, Vol. 24, No. 8, pp. 738-764. 27. I. Bruce Tracey, Michael C. Sturman, and Michael I. Tews, "Ability Versus Personality," Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 2007, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 313-322. 10 THE JOURNAL FOR QUALITY & PARTICIPATION July 2011 Mark Jordan Mark Jordan is currently a professor of management in the Mike Cottrell School of Business at North Georgia College & State University. He spent more than 25 years in the Air Force, culminating his career as the director of leadership programs in the Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership at the United States Air Force Academy. Jordan currently teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in management and leadership and his research interests include leadership, mentoring, and teams. You can contact him at mhjordan@northgeorgia.edu. Copyright of Journal for Quality & Participation is the property of American Society for Quality, Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use