Class:Research Methods of Psychology

Prompt:

• Answer the questions w/ .
• DoNOTuse ChatGPT/AI Software to answer the questions, or you will beREPORTED!
• GO INTO DETAIL!
• ANSWER THE QUESTIONS FOR THE METHOD & RESULTS DOWN BELOW.

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• READ FREE PDF'S TO CITE THEM IN THE QUESTIONS:
• Bastian et al. (2015), "Sad and Alone: Social Expectancies for Experiencing Negative Emotions Are Linked to Feelings of Loneliness":https://drive.google.com/file/d/1EkVNFA8SNfncvkX9zVdgH_E_tfFMf-T2/view?usp=sharing
• Crosswell et al. (2021), "Effects of acute stress on cognition in older versus younger adults":https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Qwecy6wJC7eA5Oiw8LBq8WoxQJPxB9vv/view?usp=sharing
• Du et al. (2018), "The Relationship between stress and negative emotion: The Mediating role of rumination":https://drive.google.com/file/d/1pNOUbwPjp_cCX4i7bvMWA8heIiDYjfij/view?usp=sharing
• Erzen & ikrikci (2018), "The effect of loneliness on depression: A meta-analysis":https://drive.google.com/file/d/1FrMnEE3DFBFZITmHRXLwReUPscWh6qK9/view?usp=sharing
• Feldman et al. (1999), "Negative Emotions and Acute Physiological Responses to Stress":https://drive.google.com/file/d/1r0NaDEeKP5cCR1xgFF3TEQIH2Kf6P01e/view?usp=sharing
• Munir et al. (2022), "Impact of Loneliness and Academic Stress on Psychological Well Being among College Students":https://drive.google.com/file/d/1h7mz8mNp_x5sPgR2mJ5Bv3hO52jKLy-f/view?usp=sharing
• BASE INFORMATION OFF OF THE METHOD & RESULTS SECTION OF "The Ripple Effect of Emotional Distress: The Associations of Negative Emotions to Loneliness and Stress in American Adults" ON THE BOTTOM OF THE QUESTIONS.

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Questions:

For the Study "The Ripple Effect of Emotional Distress: The Associations of Negative Emotions to Loneliness and Stress in American Adults", answer the questions:

1. Paragraph 1: Hook
2. Paragraph 2: Paragraph foreshadowing main claim and purpose of the study/paper ( delete this after writing this paragraph. All of the bolded and italicized headers below should remain, you just change the wording to fit your variables).
3. Paragraph 3: Description of Description of Negative Emotions (Averaged; higher = more negative) Type text here describing theory/phenomenon/model of interest. Make sure to always have clear topic sentences for each paragraph, and the text of the paragraph should go back to defending that topic sentence. Cite past research as you describe the model/phenomenon. Frederick et al. (2022), along with Smith and Nguyen (2019), say that you should use correct APAFormat for in text citations (Abbott & Kruger, 2011; Smith et al., 2022). For example, for Anxious Attachment style, you talk about the overall adultromantic attachment theory, and give a precise definition and description of anxious attachment style.
4. Paragraph 4: Description of Past Research on Predictor (Negative Emotions) Type text here describing the predictor and what it correlates with. For example, for Anxious Attachment Style, present research showing that it is an important correlate of mental health or relationship outcomes. Let the reader know why they should care about Anxious Attachment Style. It can be good to give some details about important studies.
5. Paragraph 5: Description of Concept (Greater Feelings of Loneliness) Type text here describing the concept. For example, in this case describe and define what Greater Feelings of Loneliness is and show what is correlated with. Let the reader know why they should care about Loneliness.
6. Paragraph 6: Expected Association of Predictor (Negative Emotions) and Outcome (Greater Feelings of Loneliness) Type text here describing why the predictor would be associated with the outcome, and cite past research. For example, in this case explain why being higher in anxious attachment style could lead to people dieting more. Provide a logical argument and support your ideas with research evidence.
7. Paragraph 7: Description of Concept (Higher Levels of Stress) Type text here describing the concept. For example, in this case describe and define what Higher Levels of Stress is, and show what is correlated with. Let the reader know why they should care about Stress.
8. Paragraph 8: Expected Association of Predictor (Negative Emotions) and Outcome (Higher Levels of Stress) Type text here describing why the predictor would be associated with the outcome, and cite past research. For example, in this case explain why being higher in anxious attachment style could lead to people to have lower evaluations of their appearance more. Provide a logical argument and support your ideas with research evidence.

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METHOD & RESULTS SECTION OF "The Ripple Effect of Emotional Distress: The Associations of Negative Emotions to Loneliness and Stress in American Adults" (USE THIS TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS)

Hypotheses

I hypothesized that people who reported higher levels of negative emotions (predictor) would report greater feelings of loneliness (outcome) and higher levels of stress (outcome).

Method

Participants

Participants were part of the National COVID-19 and Mental Health Study. Participants were recruited from Amazon's Mechanical Turk, a widely used online panel system that allows researchers to access a U. S. set of adult users who take surveys in exchange for a nominal fee.Participants were paid $1.20 for taking the survey. This rate was estimated to match the federal minimum wage for participants who completed the survey efficiently in 10 minutes. We chose a very broad title for the survey listing that was visible to participants: "Personal Attitudes and Experiences Survey." Participants were told that the survey involves reporting about their personal attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and demographics. This description was chosen to ensure that people interested in COVID-19 or health were disproportionately recruited based on the advertisement. When participants clicked on the survey link, the consent form provided more information about the study. To gather data from people with a wide variety of schedules, the survey was posted several times throughout the day from Wednesday April 22, 2020 until Sunday, April 26, 2020.

A total of 4,141 participants passed all of the attention check measures and inclusion criteria. The average age of the sample was 39 (range 18-84) and included 1797 males, 2346 females, and 6 intersex. There were 3082 Whites, 309 Asians, 378 Blacks, 205 Latino/as, and 175 biracial, multiracial, or other ethnicities. Among the Asians, 100 were Chinese. All participants lived in the United States. One-third reporting leaning-definitely Republican (32%), compared to 21% (866) Independent and 47% (1951) leaning-definitely Democrat. The majority had a college degree (61%), followed by some college (20%), two-year degree (10%), and high school or less (9%).

Measures

Predictor Variable(s)

Negative Emotions.The State Adjective Questionnaire (Cohen et al., 2003) is a well-established measure used to assess negative emotions. It consists of 6 items that describe various negative emotional states, such as "feeling tense," "feeling on edge," "feeling hostile," and "feeling angry". Participants will be asked to rate the extent to which they have experienced each emotion in the past week. This time frame allows for the assessment of recent emotional experiences and minimizes recall biases.

Participants will rate their experiences on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Definitely, 2 = Mostly Disagree 3 = Neither Agree nor Disagree 4 = Mostly Agree 5 = Definitely Agree). This scale provides a continuum for participants to express the intensity of their negative emotions. The items will be averaged to make a total score for negative emotions. Averaging up the items allows for a comprehensive assessment of overall negative emotional experiences. Higher total scores indicate a higher level of negative emotions reported by participants.

Outcome Variable(s)

Loneliness.The Three-Item Loneliness Scale and one additional item (Hughes et al., 2004) will be used to measure loneliness. This scale is a brief and widely used measure in psychological research. It includes 4 items that assess subjective feelings of loneliness, such as "feeling left out," "lacking companionship," "isolated from others," and "feeling alone".

Participants will rate their agreement with each item on a 5-point Likert scale, (1 = Definitely, 2 = Mostly Disagree 3 = Neither Agree nor Disagree 4 = Mostly Agree 5 = Definitely Agree). This scale allows participants to express the frequency of their experiences, providing a quantitative assessment of loneliness. The items will be averaged to calculate a mean loneliness score. Averaging the items provides a summary measure of overall loneliness experiences, with higher scores indicating greater feelings of loneliness.

Stress. The Perceived Stress Scale-4 (Cohen, 1988) will be used to measure participants' perception of stress in their lives. This scale has been widely used and validated in various populations. It consists of four items that assess the degree to which participants perceive their life as stressful such as, "unable to control the important things in life," "confident about the ability to handle personal problems," "things were going your way," and "difficulties were piling up so high that the participant was not able to overcome them". The items capture aspects of stress, such as feeling overwhelmed by difficulties.

Participants will rate their responses on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Definitely, 2 = Mostly Disagree 3 = Neither Agree nor Disagree 4 = Mostly Agree 5 = Definitely Agree). This scale allows participants to express the frequency of their perceived stress experiences. The items will be averaged to make a total stress score. Averaging up the items provides an overall measure of perceived stress, with higher scores indicating higher levels of perceived stress reported by participants.

Results

The full set of correlations are reported in Table 1.

Hypothesis 1: Association between Negative Emotions and Loneliness

The results showed a significant positive correlation between negative emotions and loneliness,r(4141) = .49,p< .001. This indicates that people who reported having higher levels of negative emotions tended to report greater stress. As such, this result supports the hypothesis that an increase in negative emotions is associated with an increase in loneliness.

Hypothesis 2: Association between Negative Emotions and Stress

The results showed a significant positive correlation between negative emotions and stress,r(4141) = .52,p< .001. This indicates that people who reported having higher levels of negative emotions tended to report greater feelings of loneliness. As such, this result supports the hypothesis that an increase in negative emotions is associated with an increase in stress.

Hypothesis 3: Association between Loneliness and Stress

The results showed a significant positive correlation between loneliness and stress,r(4141) = .50,p< .001. This indicates that people who reported being lonelier tended to report greater stress. As such, this result supports the hypothesis that an increase in loneliness is associated with an increase in stress.

Table 1. The Associations of Negative Emotions to Loneliness and Stress

	Negative Emotions	Loneliness	Stress
Negative Emotions	-
Loneliness	.49***	-
Stress	.52***	.50***	-

Note.***p< .001