Consider the following financial data for Shopify Inc. and Salesforce, Inc. for the fiscal year 2023:

($ millions)	Shopify Inc.	Salesforce, Inc.
Net sales	$7,903	$31,352
Cost of sales	3,689	12,457
Gross profit	4,214	18,895
Operating expenses:
Selling, general, and administrative	2,947	11,254
Research and development	1,295	6,983
Operating income	(28)	658
Interest and other (income) expense	137	208
Interest and investment income	(42)	(121)
Earnings before provision for income taxes	(123)	571
Provision for income taxes	24	137
Net earnings	$(147)	$434

Required: a. Compute the return on equity (ROE), return on assets (ROA), and return on financial leverage (ROFL) for Shopify Inc. and Salesforce, Inc. Assume a tax rate of 25%. b. Break down the ROA into profit margin (PM) and asset turnover (AT) for both companies. Identify the primary drivers of their ROA. c. Assess the trend in net earnings over the past five years. What does it indicate about the overall financial health of the companies? d. Evaluate the interest coverage ratio for Shopify Inc. and Salesforce, Inc. What does it indicate about their ability to meet interest obligations? e. Compare the research and development (R&D) expenses as a percentage of sales for Shopify Inc. and Salesforce, Inc. What can be inferred about their investment in innovation?