ENG 300 Critical Thinking-Assignments

518 15 / WHAT IS THE IDEAL SOCIETY? it's equally logical to assume that where you have an uninterrupted state of health you cannot fail to have pleasure. Besides, they say, when we eat something, what really happens is this. Our failing health starts fighting off the attacks of hunger, using the food as an ally. Gradually it begins to prevail, and, in this very process of winning back its normal strength, experiences the sense of enjoyment which we find so refreshing. Now, if health enjoys the actual battle, why shouldn't it also enjoy the victory? Or are we to suppose that when it has finally managed to regain its former vigor-the one thing that it has been fighting for all this time-it promptly falls into a coma, and fails to notice or take advantage of its success? As for the idea that one isn't con- scious of health except through its opposite, they say that's quite untrue. Everyone's perfectly aware of feeling well, unless he's asleep or actually feeling ill. Even the most insensitive and apathetic sort of person will admit that it's delightful to be healthy-and what is delight, but a syn- onym for pleasure? They're particularly fond of mental pleasures, which they consider of 30 primary importance, and attribute mostly to good behavior and a clear conscience. Their favorite physical pleasure is health. Of course, they believe in enjoying food, drink, and so forth, but purely in the interests of health, for they don't regard such things as very pleasant in them- selves-only as methods of resisting the stealthy onset of disease. A sen- sible person, they say, prefers keeping well to taking medicine, and would rather feel cheerful than have people trying to comfort him. On the same principle it's better not to need this type of pleasure than to become addicted to it. For, if you think that sort of thing will make you happy, you'll have to admit that your idea of perfect felicity would be a life consisting entirely of hunger, thirst, itching, eating, drinking, rub- bing, and scratching-which would obviously be most unpleasant as well as quite disgusting. Undoubtedly these pleasures should come right at the bottom of the list, because they're so impure. For instance, the pleasure of eating is invariably diluted with the pain of hunger, and not in equal proportions either-for the pain is both more intense and more prolonged. It starts before the pleasure, and doesn't stop until the pleas- ure has stopped too. So they don't think much of pleasures like that, except insofar as they're necessary. But they enjoy them all the same, and feel most grate- ful to Mother Nature for encouraging her children to do things that have to be done so often, by making them so attractive. For just think how dreary life would be, if those chronic ailments, hunger and thirst, could only be cured by foul-tasting medicines, like the rarer types of disease! They attach great value to special natural gifts such as beauty. strength, and agility. They're also keen on the pleasures of sight, hearing, and smell, which are peculiar to human beings-for no other species admires the beauty of the world, enjoys any sort of scent, except as a method of locating food, or can tell the difference between a harmony and a discord. They say these things give a sort of relish to life.MORE / FROM UTOPIA 519 However, in all such matters they observe the rule that minor plea- sures mustn't interfere with major ones, and that pleasure mustn't cause pain-which they think is bound to happen, if the pleasure is immoral. But they'd never dream of despising their own beauty, overtaxing their strength, converting their agility into inertia, ruining their physique by going without food, damaging their health, or spurning any other of Nature's gifts, unless they were doing it for the benefit of other people or of society, in the hope of receiving some greater pleasure from God in return. For they think it's quite absurd to torment oneself in the name of an unreal virtue, which does nobody any good, or in order to steel one- self against disasters which may never occur. They say such behavior is merely self-destructive, and shows a most ungrateful attitude toward Nature-as if one refused all her favors, because one couldn't bear the thought of being indebted to her for anything. Well, that's their ethical theory, and short of some divine revelation, they doubt if the human mind is capable of devising a better one. We've no time to discuss whether it's right or wrong-nor is it really necessary, for all I undertook was to describe their way of life, not to defend it. [TREATMENT OF THE DYING] As I told you, when people are ill, they're looked after most sympa- 35 thetically, and given everything in the way of medicine or special food that could possibly assist their recovery. In the case of permanent invalids, the nurses try to make them feel better by sitting and talking to them, and do all they can to relieve their symptoms. But if, besides being incurable, the disease also causes constant excruciating pain, some priests and government officials visit the person concerned, and say something like this: "Let's face it, you'll never be able to live a normal life. You're just a nuisance to other people and a burden to yourself-in fact you're really leading a sort of posthumous existence. So why go on feeding germs? Since your life's a misery to you, why hesitate to die? You're imprisoned in a torture chamber-why don't you break out and escape to a better world? Or say the word, and we'll arrange for your release. It's only common sense to cut your losses. It's also an act of piety to take the advice of a priest, because he speaks for God." If the patient finds these arguments convincing, he either starves him- self to death, or is given a soporific and put painlessly out of his misery. But this is strictly voluntary, and, if he prefers to stay alive, everyone will go on treating him as kindly as ever. [THE SUMMING UP] Well, that's the most accurate account I can give you of the Utopian Republic. To my mind, it's not only the best country in the world, but the only one that has any right to call itself a republic. Elsewhere, people520 15 / WHAT IS THE IDEAL SOCIETY? are always talking about the public interest, but all they really care about is private property. In Utopia, where's there's no private property, people take their duty to the public seriously. And both attitudes are perfectly reasonable. In other "republics" practically everyone knows that, if he doesn't look out for himself, he'll starve to death, however prosperous his country may be. He's therefore compelled to give his own interests priority over those of the public; that is, of other people. But in Utopia, where everything's under public ownership, no one has any fear of going short, as long as the public storehouses are full. Everyone gets a fair share, so there are never any poor men or beggars. Nobody owns anything, but everyone is rich-for what greater wealth can there be than cheerfulness, peace of mind, and freedom from anxiety? Instead of being worried about his food supply, upset by the plaintive demands of his wife, afraid of poverty for his son, and baffled by the problem of find- ing a dowry for his daughter, the Utopian can feel absolutely sure that he. his wife, his children, his grandchildren, his great-grandchildren, his great-great-grandchildren, and as long a line of descendants as the proudest peer could wish to look forward to, will always have enough to eat and enough to make them happy. There's also the further point that those who are too old to work are just as well provided for as those who are still working. Now, will anyone venture to compare these fair arrangements in Utopia with the so-called justice of other countries?-in which I'm damned if I can see the slightest trace of justice or fairness. For what sort of justice do you call this? People like aristocrats, goldsmiths, or money- lenders, who either do no work at all, or do work that's really not es- sential, are rewarded for their laziness or their unnecessary activities by a splendid life of luxury. But laborers, coachmen, carpenters, and farmhands, who never stop working like cart horses, at jobs so essential that, if they did stop working, they'd bring any country to a standstill within twelve months- what happens to them? They get so little to eat, and have such a wretched time, that they'd be almost better off if they were cart horses. Then at least, they wouldn't work quite such long hours, their food wouldn't be very much worse, they'd enjoy it more, and they'd have no fears for the future. As it is, they're not only ground down by unrewarding toil in the present, but also worried to death by the prospect of a poverty-stricken old age-since their daily wages aren't enough to support them for one day, let alone leave anything over to be saved up when they're old. Can you see any fairness or gratitude in a social system which lav- 40 ishes such great rewards on so-called noblemen, goldsmiths, and people like that, who are either totally unproductive or merely employed in producing luxury goods or entertainment, but makes no such kind pro- vision for farmhands, coal heavers, laborers, carters, or carpenters, with- out whom society couldn't exist at all? And the climax of ingratitude comes when they're old and ill and completely destitute. Having takenMORE l Fttost room 52 l advantage of them thmughout the best years of their lives. society now forgets all the sleepless hours they've spent in its service. and re- pays them [or all the vital work they've done. by letting them die in misery. what's more, the wretched earnings of the poor are daily whit- tled away by the rich. not only through private dishonesty. but through public legislation. As it it Weren't unjust enough already that the man who contributes most to society should get the least in return. they make it even worse. and then arrange tor injustice to be legaliy described as justice. In fact, when I consider any social system that prevails in the mod- em world. I can't. so help me God. see it as anything but a conspiracy of the rich to advance their own interests under the pretext of organizing society. They think up all sorts of tricks and dodges. iirst [or keeping sale their ill-gotten gains. and then lor eproiting the poor by buying their labor as cheaply as possible. Once the rich have decided that these tricks and dodges shall be ofcially recognized by societywhich includes the poor as well as the richthey acquire the lorce of law. Thus an unscrupulous minority is led by its insatiable greed to monopolize what would have been enough to supply the needs of the whole population. And yet how much happier even these people would be in Utopia! There. with the simultaneous abolition of money and the passion for money. how many other social problems have been solved. how many crimes eradicated! For obviously the end of money means the end of all those types oi criminal behavior which daily punishments are powerless to check: fraud. theft. burglary. brawls. noes. disputes. rebellion. murder. treason. and black magic. And the moment money goes, you can also say goodbye to lear. tension. anxiety. ovenvorlt. and sleepless nights. Why. even poverty itself. the one problem that has always seemed to need money ior its solution. would promptly disappear if money ceased to exist. Let me try to make this point clearer. Just think back to one oi the years when the harvest was bad. and thousands ol people died of starva- tion. Well. i bet il you'd inspected every tich man's barn at the end of that iean period you'd have found enough corn to have saved all the lives that were lost through malnutrition and disease. and prevented anyone lrorn suilerirtg any ill ellerts whatever from the meanness oi the weather and the soil. Everyone could so easily get enough to eat. if it weren't for that blessed nuisance. money. There you have a brilliant invention which was designed to make food more readily available. Actually it's the only thing that makes it unobtainable. i'rn sure that even the rich are well aware of all this. and realize how much better it would be to have everything one needed. than lots of things one didn't needto be evacuated altogether from the danger area. than to dig oneself in behind a barricade oi enormous wealth. And I've no doubt that either self-interest. or the authority oi our Savior ChristWho was far too wise not to know what was best for 522 15 / WHAT IS THE IDEAL SOCIETY? us, and far too kind to recommend anything else- would have led the whole world to adopt the Utopian system long ago, if it weren't for that beastly root of all evils, pride. For pride's criterion of prosperity is not what you've got yourself, but what other people haven't got. Pride would refuse to set foot in paradise, if she thought there'd be no underprivileged classes there to gloat over and order about-nobody whose misery could serve as a foil to her own happiness, or whose poverty she could make harder to bear, by flaunting her own riches. Pride, like a hellish serpent gliding through human hearts-or shall we say, like a sucking-fish that clings to the ship of state?- is always dragging us back, and obstructing our progress toward a better way of life. But as this fault is too deeply ingrained in human nature to be easily eradicated, I'm glad that at least one country has managed to develop a system which I'd like to see universally adopted. The Utopian way of life provides not only the happiest basis for a civilized community, but also one which, in all human probability, will last forever. They've eliminated the root causes of ambition, political conflict, and everything like that. There's therefore no danger of internal dissension, the one thing that has destroyed so many impregnable towns. And as long as there's unity and sound administration at home, no matter how envious neighboring kings may feel, they'll never be able to shake, let alone to shatter, the power of Utopia. They've tried to do so often enough in the past, but have always been beaten back. TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING AND WRITING 1. More, writing early in the sixteenth century, was living in a primarily agricultural society. Laborers were needed on farms, but might More have had any other reason for insisting (para. 1) that all people should do some farming and that farming should be "part of every child's edu- cation"? Do you think everyone should put in some time as a farmer? Why, or why not? 2. More indicates that in the England of his day many people loafed or engaged in unnecessary work (producing luxury goods, for one thing), putting an enormous burden on those who engaged in useful work. Is this condition, or any part of it, true of our society? Explain. 3. The Utopians cannot understand why the people of other nations value gems, gold, and fine clothes. If you value any of these, can you offer an explanation? 4. What arguments can you offer against the Utopians' treatment of per- sons who are incurably ill and in pain? 5. Take three or four paragraphs to summarize More's report of the Utopians' idea of pleasure.MACHIAVELLI / FROM THE PRINCE 523 6. More's Utopians cannot understand why anyone takes pleasure in gambling or in hunting. If either activity gives you pleasure, in an essay of 500 words explain why, and offer an argument on behalf of your view. 7. As More makes clear in the part we entitle "The Summing Up," in Uto- pia there is no private property. In a sentence or two summarize the rea- sons he gives for this principle, and then in a paragraph evaluate them.S to Is t WHAT Is THE IDEAL SOCIETY? From Utopia [A DAY IN UTOPIA] And now lot their working eottditions. Well, there's one job they all do, irrespective of sex. and that's larming. It's pan oi every child's educa- tion. They learn the principles of agriculture at school. and they're taken for regular outings into the fields near the town. where they not only watch Farm work being done. but also do some themselves. as a form of exercise. Besides farming which. as I say. is everybody's job. each person is taught a special trade ol his own. He may he lralned to process won! or ax. or he may become a stonetnason. a blacksmith. or a carpenter. Those are the only trades that employ any utnsiderable quantity nl lab-or. They have no tailors or dressmakers, since everyone on the island wears the some sort ol clothesexcept that they vary slightly according to sex and marital statusand the lesbian never changes. These clothes are quite pleasant to look at. they allow free movement oi the limbs. they're equally suitable {or hot and mid weatherand the great thing is, they're all home-made. So everybody learns one of the other trades [ mentioned, and by everybody I mean the women as well as the men though the weaker sex are given the lighter jobs. like spinning and weaving. while the men do the heavier ones. Most children are brought up to do the same work as their parents. since they tend to have a natural leeling for it. But il a child latteies some other trade. he's adopted into a family that practice: it. Of course. great care is taken. not only by the father. but also by the local authorities, to see that the foster [ather is a decent. respectable type. When you've learned one trade properly. you can. if you like. get permission to learn anotherand when you're an expert in both. you can practice Whichi'vt'r you prefer, unless the other one is more essential to the public. The chiei business oi the Stywards' in tact. practically their only businessis to see that nobody sits around doing nothing, but that everyone gets on with his job. They don't wear people out. though. by keeping them hard at work from early moming till late at night. like can horses. That's just slaveryand yet that's what life 15 like for the work- ing classes nearly everywhere else in the world. In Utopia they have a six-hour working daythree hours in the morning. then lunchthen a two-hour breakthen three more hours in the alternoon. followed by supper. They go to bed at S m" and sleep [or eight hours. All the rest oi the twenty-four they're tree to do what they likenot to waste their 'Stywards ln Utopia, each group oi thirty households elects a styward: each town has two hundred towards. who elect the mayor. [All notes are the editors'.| M05: r FROM time\" 51 I time in idleness or self-indulgence. but to make good use of it in some congenial activity. Most people spend these free periods on int-titer edu- cation. for there are public lectures first thing every morning. Attendance is quite voluntary. except for those picked out for academic training. but men and women oi all classes go crowding in to hear themi mean. different people go to different lectures. just as the spirit moves them. However. there's nothing to stop you iron: spending this extra time on your trade. it you want to. Lots oi people do. ii they haven't the capacity for intellectual work. and are much admired [or such public-spirited behavior. After supper they have an hour's recreation, either in the gardens or in the communal dining-halls. according to the time oi year. Some people practice music, others just tail:+ They've never heard of anything so slliy and demoralizing as dice. but they have Itvu games rather like chess. The first isa sort oi arithmetical contest. in which certain numbers \"take' others. The second is a pitched battle between virtues and vices. which illustrates most Ingeniously how vices tend to conict with one another, but to combine against virtues. it also shows which vices are opposed to which vinues. how much strength vices can muster [or a direct assault. what indirect tactics they employ. what help virtues need to overcome vices. what are the best methods oi evading their attacks. and what ultimately determines the victory oi one side or the other. But here's a point that requires special attention. or you're liable to get the wrong idea. Since they only work a six-hour day. imu may think there must be a shortage oi essential goods. On the contrary. those six hours are enough. and more than enough to produce plenty of every thing that's needed lor a comfortable life. And you'ii understand why it is. it you reckon up how large a proportion oi the population in other countries is totally unemployed. First you have practically all the womenthat gives you nearly 50 percent [or a start. And in countries where the women do work. the men tend to lounge about instead. Then there are all the priests. and members of so-called religious ordershow much work do they do? Add all the rich. especially the landowners. pop- ularly known as nobles and gentlemen. Include their domestic staiisl mean those gangs of armed ruians that i mentioned before. Finally. throw in all the beggars who are perfectly hale and hearty. but pretend to be "I as an excuse [or being lazy. When you've counted them up. you'll be surprised to nd how few people actually produce what the human race cons-titties. And. now just think how let-v of these few people are doing essential workior where money is the only standard of value. there are bound to be dozens of unnecessary trades carried on. which merely supply lus- ury goods or entertainment. Why. even if the existing labor torce were distributed among the few trades reaily needed to rnalte life reasonably comfortable. there'd be so much overproduction that prices would fall too low for the workers to earn a living. Whereas. if you took all those 512 HIWHATESTHEIHEALSOCIFI'Y? engaged in nonessential trades. and all who are too lazy to workeach of whom consumes twice as much oi the products of other people's labor as any of the producers themselvesii you put the whole lot oi thetn on to something useiul. you'd soon see how few hours' work a day would be antply suilicient to supply all the necessities and cominrts oi lifeto which you might add all real and natural forms of pleasure. [THE nouseuomt But let's get back to their social organization. Each household. as i said. comes under the authority of the oldest male. wives are subordi nate to their husbands. children to their parents. and younger people generally to their elders. Every town is divided into iour districts of equal sire. each with its own shopping center in the middle oi it. There the products oi every household are collected in warehouses. and then dis tributed according to type among various shops. when the head of a household needs anything for himself or his family. he just goes to one oi these shops and asks [or it. And whatever he asks for. he's allowed to take away without any sort oi payment. either in money or in kind. After all. why shouldn't he? There's more than enough oi mrything to go round. so there's no risk of his asking for more than he needsfor why should anyone want to start hoarding. when he knows he'll never have to go short of anything? No living creature is naturally greedy. except [torn [ear of wantor in the case ol human beings. [rom vanity. the notion that you're better than people 1i you can display more super- lluous property than they can. But there's no scope [or that sort oi thing in Utopia. [UTOPIAN BELIEFS] The Uropians fail to understand why anyone should be so fascinated by the dull gleam oi a tiny bit of stone. when he has all the stars in the sky to look ator htnv anyone can be silly enough to think himself bet ter than other people. because ltis clothes are made of ner woollen thread than theirs. After all. those ne clothes were once worn by a sheep. and they never turned it into anything better than a sheep. Nor can they understand why a totally useless substance like gold should now. all over the world. be considered far more important than human beings. who gave it such value as it has, purely for their own convenience. The result is that a matt with about as much mental agility as a lump oi lead or a block oi wood. a man whose utter stupidity is par- alleled only by his immorality. can have lots of good. intelligent people at his beck and call. just because he happens to possess a large pile oi gold coins. And if by some freak of lortune or trick oi the lawtwo equally effective methods oi turning things upside downthe said coins were suddenly transient-d to the most worthless member oi his domestic stall. ID MORE / FROM UTOPIA 513 you'd soon see the present owner trotting after his money, like an extra piece of currency, and becoming his own servant's servant. But what puzzles and disgusts the Utopians even more is the idiotic way some people have of practically worshipping a rich man, not because they owe him money or are otherwise in his power, but simply because he's rich-although they know perfectly well that he's far too mean to let a single penny come their way, so long as he's alive to stop it. They get these ideas partly from being brought up under a social sys- tem which is directly opposed to that type of nonsense, and partly from their reading and education. Admittedly, no one's allowed to become a full-time student, except for the very few in each town who appear as children to possess unusual gifts, outstanding intelligence, and a special aptitude for academic research. But every child receives a primary edu- cation, and most men and women go on educating themselves all their lives during those free periods that I told you about. . . . In ethics they discuss the same problems as we do. Having distin- guished between three types of "good," psychological, physiological, and environmental, they proceed to ask whether the term is strictly applica able to all of them, or only to the first. They also argue about such things as virtue and pleasure. But their chief subject of dispute is the nature of human happiness-on what factor or factors does it depend? Here they seem rather too much inclined to take a hedonistic view, for according to them human happiness consists largely or wholly in pleasure. Surprisingly enough, they defend this self-indulgent doctrine by arguments drawn from religion-a thing normally associated with a more serious view of life, if not with gloomy asceticism. You see, in all their discussions of hap- piness they invoke certain religious principles to supplement the opera- tions of reason, which they think otherwise ill-equipped to identify true happiness. The first principle is that every soul is immortal, and was created by a kind God, Who meant it to be happy. The second is that we shall be rewarded or punished in the next world for our good or bad behavior in this one. Although these are religious principles, the Utopians find rational grounds for accepting them. For suppose you didn't accept them? In that case, they say, any fool could tell you what you ought to do. You should go all out for your own pleasure, irrespective of right and wrong. You'd merely have to make sure that minor pleasures didn't interfere with major ones, and avoid the type of pleasure that has painful aftereffects. For what's the sense of struggling to be virtuous, denying yourself the pleasant things of life, and deliberately making yourself uncomfortable, if there's nothing you hope to gain by it? And what can you hope to gain by it, if you receive no compensation after death for a thoroughly unpleasant, that is, a thoroughly miserable life? Not that they identify happiness with every type of pleasure-only with the higher ones. Nor do they identify it with virtue-unless they514 15 / WHAT IS THE IDEAL SOCIETY? belong to a quite different school of thought. According to the normal view, happiness is the summum bonum' toward which we're naturally impelled by virtue-which in their definition means following one's natural impulses, as God meant us to do. But this includes obeying the instinct to be reasonable in our likes and dislikes. And reason also teaches us, first to love and reverence Almighty God, to Whom we owe our existence and our potentiality for happiness, and secondly to get through life as comfortably and cheerfully as we can, and help all other members of our species to do so too. The fact is, even the sternest ascetic tends to be slightly inconsistent is in his condemnation of pleasure. He may sentence you to a life of hard labor, inadequate sleep, and general discomfort, but he'll also tell you to do your best to ease the pains and privations of others. He'll regard all such attempts to improve the human situation as laudable acts of humanity-for obviously nothing could be more humane, or more nat- ural for a human being, than to relieve other people's sufferings, put an end to their miseries, and restore their joie de vivre, that is, their capacity for pleasure. So why shouldn't it be equally natural to do the same thing for oneself? Either it's a bad thing to enjoy life, in other words, to experience pleasure-in which case you shouldn't help anyone to do it, but should try to save the whole human race from such a frightful fate-or else, if it's good for other people, and you're not only allowed, but positively obliged to make it possible for them, why shouldn't charity begin at home? After all, you've a duty to yourself as well as to your neighbor, and, if Nature says you must be kind to others, she can't turn round the next moment and say you must be cruel to yourself. The Utopians there- fore regard the enjoyment of life-that is, pleasure-as the natural object of all human efforts, and natural, as they define it, is synonymous with virtuous. However, Nature also wants us to help one another to enjoy life, for the very good reason that no human being has a monop- oly of her affections. She's equally anxious for the welfare of every member of the species. So of course she tells us to make quite sure that we don't pursue our own interests at the expense of other people's. On this principle they think it right to keep one's promises in pri- vate life, and also to obey public laws for regulating the distribution of "goods"-by which I mean the raw materials of pleasure-provided such laws have been properly made by a wise ruler, or passed by com- mon consent of a whole population, which has not been subjected to any form of violence or deception. Within these limits they say it's sen- sible to consult one's own interests, and a moral duty to consult those of the community as well. It's wrong to deprive someone else of a pleasure so that you can enjoy one yourself, but to deprive yourself of a pleasure so that you can add to someone else's enjoyment is an act of humanity 'summum bonum Latin for "the highest good."MORE / FROM UTOPIA 515 by which you always gain more than you lose. For one thing, such bene- fits are usually repaid in kind. For another, the mere sense of having done somebody a kindness, and so earned his affection and goodwill, produces a spiritual satisfaction which far outweighs the loss of a physi- cal one. And lastly-a belief that comes easily to a religious mind-God will reward us for such small sacrifices of momentary pleasure, by giving us an eternity of perfect joy. Thus they argue that, in the final analysis, pleasure is the ultimate happiness which all human beings have in view, even when they're acting most virtuously. Pleasure they define as any state or activity, physical or mental, which is naturally enjoyable. The operative word is naturally. According to them, we're impelled by reason as well as an instinct to enjoy ourselves in any natural way which doesn't hurt other people, interfere with greater plea- sures, or cause unpleasant aftereffects. But human beings have entered into an idiotic conspiracy to call some things enjoyable which are natu- rally nothing of the kind-as though facts were as easily changed as definitions. Now the Utopians believe that, so far from contributing to happiness, this type of thing makes happiness impossible-because, once you get used to it, you lose all capacity for real pleasure, and are merely obsessed by illusory forms of it. Very often these have nothing pleasant about them at all-in fact, most of them are thoroughly disagreeable. But they appeal so strongly to perverted tastes that they come to be reckoned not only among the major pleasures of life, but even among the chief rea- sons for living. In the category of illusory pleasure addicts they include the kind of person I mentioned before, who thinks himself better than other people because he's better dressed than they are. Actually he's just as wrong about his clothes as he is about himself. From a practical point of view, why is it better to be dressed in fine woollen thread than in coarse? But he's got it into his head that fine thread is naturally superior, and that wearing it somehow increases his own value. So he feels entitled to far more respect than he'd ever dare to hope for, if he were less expensively dressed, and is most indignant if he fails to get it. Talking of respect, isn't it equally idiotic to attach such importance to 20 a lot of empty gestures which do nobody any good? For what real plea- sure can you get out of the sight of a bared head or a bent knee? Will it cure the rheumatism in your own knee, or make you any less weak in the head? Of course, the great believers in this type of artificial pleasure are those who pride themselves on their "nobility." Nowadays that merely means that they happen to belong to a family which has been rich for several generations, preferably in landed property. And yet they feel every bit as "noble" even if they've failed to inherit any of the said property, or if they have inherited it and then frittered it all away. Then there's another type of person I mentioned before, who has a passion for jewels, and feels practically superhuman if he manages to get hold of a rare one, especially if it's a kind that's considered particularly516 15 / WHAT IS THE IDEAL SOCIETY? precious in his country and period-for the value of such things varies according to where and when you live. But he's so terrified of being taken in by appearances that he refuses to buy any jewel until he's stripped off all the gold and inspected it in the nude. And even then he won't buy it without a solemn assurance and a written guarantee from the jeweler that the stone is genuine. But my dear sir, why shouldn't a fake give you just as much pleasure, if you can't, with your own eyes, distinguish it from a real one? It makes no difference to you whether it's genuine or not-any more than it would to a blind man! And now, what about those people who accumulate superfluous wealth, for no better purpose than to enjoy looking at it? Is their plea- sure a real one, or merely a form of delusion? The opposite type of psy- chopath buries his gold, so that he'll never be able to use it, and may never even see it again. In fact, he deliberately loses it in his anxiety not to lose it- for what can you call it but lost, when it's put back into the earth, where it's no good to him, or probably to anyone else? And yet he's tremendously happy when he's got it stowed away. Now, appar- ently, he can stop worrying. But suppose the money is stolen, and ten years later he dies without ever knowing it has gone. Then for a whole ten years he has managed to survive his loss, and during that period what difference has it made to him whether the money was there or not? It was just as little use to him either way. Among stupid pleasures they include not only gambling-a form of idiocy that they've heard about but never practiced-but also hunting and hawking. What on earth is the fun, they ask, of throwing dice onto a table? Besides, you've done it so often that, even if there was some fun in it at first, you must surely be sick of it by now. How can you possibly enjoy listening to anything so disagreeable as the barking and howling of dogs? And why is it more amusing to watch a dog chasing a hare than to watch one dog chasing another? In each case the essential activity is running-if running is what amuses you. But if it's really the thought of being in at the death, and seeing an animal torn to pieces before your eyes, wouldn't pity be a more appropriate reaction to the sight of a weak, timid, harmless little creature like a hare being devoured by some- thing so much stronger and fiercer? So the Utopians consider hunting below the dignity of free men, and leave it entirely to butchers, who are, as I told you, slaves. In their view hunting is the vilest department of butchery, compared with which all the others are relatively useful and honorable. An ordinary butcher slaughters livestock far more sparingly, and only because he has to. whereas a hunter kills and mutilates poor little creatures purely for his own amusement. They say you won't find that type of blood lust even among animals, unless they're particularly savage by nature, or have become so by constantly being used for this cruel sport. There are hundreds of things like that, which are generally regarded 25 as pleasures, but everyone in Utopia is quite convinced that they've gotMORE / FROM UTOPIA 517 nothing to do with real pleasure, because there's nothing naturally enjoyable about them. Nor is this conviction at all shaken by the argu- ment that most people do actually enjoy them, which would seem to indicate an appreciable pleasure content. They say this is a purely subject tive reaction caused by bad habits, which can make a person prefer unpleasant things to pleasant ones, just as pregnant women sometimes lose their sense of taste, and find suet or turpentine more delicious than honey. But however much one's judgment may be impaired by habit or ill health, the nature of pleasure, as of everything else, remains unchanged. Real pleasures they divide into two categories, mental and physical. Mental pleasures include the satisfaction that one gets from understand- ing something, or from contemplating truth. They also include the mem- ory of a well-spent life, and the confident expectation of good things to come. Physical pleasures are subdivided into two types. First there are those which fill the whole organism with a conscious sense of enjoy- ment. This may be the result of replacing physical substances which have been burnt up by the natural heat of the body, as when we eat or drink. Or else it may be caused by the discharge of some excess, as in excretion, sexual intercourse, or any relief of irritation by rubbing or scratching. However, there are also pleasures which satisfy no organic need, and relieve no previous discomfort. They merely act, in a mysterious but quite unmistakable way, directly on our senses, and monopolize their reactions. Such is the pleasure of music. Their second type of physical pleasure arises from the calm and reg- ular functioning of the body- that is, from a state of health undisturbed by any minor ailments. In the absence of mental discomfort, this gives one a good feeling, even without the help of external pleasures. Of course, it's less ostentatious, and forces itself less violently on one's attention than the cruder delights of eating and drinking, but even so it's often considered the greatest pleasure in life. Practically everyone in Utopia would agree that it's a very important one, because it's the basis of all the others. It's enough by itself to make you enjoy life, and unless you have it, no other pleasure is possible. However, mere freedom from pain, without positive health, they would call not pleasure but anesthesia. Some thinkers used to maintain that a uniformly tranquil state of health couldn't properly be termed a pleasure since its presence could only be detected by contrast with its opposite-oh yes, they went very thoroughly into the whole question. But that theory was exploded long ago, and nowadays nearly everybody subscribes to the view that health is most definitely a pleasure. The argument goes like this-illness involves pain, which is the direct opposite of pleasure, and illness is the direct opposite of health, therefore health involves pleasure. They don't think it matters whether you say that illness is or merely involves pain. Either way it comes to the same thing. Similarly, whether health is a pleasure, or merely produces pleasure as inevitably as fire produces heat