\fNew research suggests that the most effective executives use a collection o f distinct leadership styles each in the right measure, at just the right time. Such flexibility is tough to put into action, but it pays off in performance. And better yet, it can be learned. EADERSHIP THAT GETS ESULTS A sk a n y g r o u p of businesspeople f the question "What do effective I X X leaders do?" and y o u 'll hear a sweep of answers. Leaders set strategy; they motivate; they create a mission; they build a culture. Then ask "What should leaders do?" If the group is seasoned, you'll likely hear one response: the leader's singular job is to get results. But how? The mystery of what leaders can and ought to do in order to spark the best performance from their people is age-old. In recent years, that mystery has spawned an entire cottage industry: literally thousands of "leadership experts" have made careers of testing and coaching executives, all in pursuit of creating businesspeople who can turn bold objectives-be they strategic, financial, organi zational, or all three-into reality. Still, effective leadership eludes many people and organizations. One reason is that until recently, vir tually no quantitative research has demonstrated 78 which precise leadership behaviors yield positive results. Leadership experts prof fer advice based on inference, experience, and instinct. Sometimes that advice is right on target; sometimes it's not. But new research by the consulting firm Hay/ McBer, which draws on a random sample of 3,871 executives selected from a database of more than 20,000 executives worldwide, takes much of the mystery out of effective leadership. The research found six distinct leadership styles, each springing from different components of emotional intelli gence. The styles, taken individually, appear to have a direct and unique impact on the working atmo sphere of a company, division, or team, and in turn, on its financial performance. And perhaps most important, the research indicates that leaders with the best results do not rely on only one leadership style,- they use most of them in a given week -seam lessly and in different measure-depending on the H A R V A R D B U S IN E S S R EV IEW M a r c h - A p r il 20 00 ARTWORK BY C f. PAYNE by Daniel Goleman L e a d e rs h ip T h a t Gets Results Emotional Intelligence: A Primer E m o tio n a l in t e llig e n c e - t h e a b ility t o m a n a g e o u rs e lv e s a n d o u r re la tio n s h ip s e ffe c tiv e ly c o n s is ts o f fo u r fu n d a m e n ta l c a p a b ilitie s : se lf-a w a re n e ss, s e lf-m a n a g e m e n t, so c ia l a w a reness, a n d so cial skill. Each c a p a b ility , in tu rn , is c o m p o s e d o f s p e c ific sets o f c o m p e te n c ie s . B e lo w is a lis t o f th e c a p a b ilitie s a n d th e ir c o rre s p o n d in g tra its . Self-Awareness Self-M anagem ent Social Awareness Social Skill Emotionalself-awareness: the ability to read and understand your emo tions as well as recognize their impact on work performance, relation ships, and the like. Self-control: the ability to keep disruptive emotions and impulses under control. Empathy: skill at sensing other people's emotions, understanding their perspective, and taking an active interest in their concerns. Visionary leadership the ability to take charge and inspire with a compelling vision. Accurate self-assessment : a realistic evaluation of your strengths and limitations. Self-confidence: a strong and positive sense of self-worth. Trustworthiness: a consistent display of honesty and integrity. Adaptability: skill at adjust ing to changing situations and overcoming obstacles. Organizational awareness. the ability to read the currents of organizational life, build decision net works, and navigate politics. Achievement orientation: the drive to meet an inter nal standard of excellence. Service orientation: the ability to recognize and meet customers' needs. Conscientiousness: the abili ty to manage yourself and your responsibilities. Initiative: a readiness to seize opportunities. business situation. Imagine the styles, then, as the array of clubs in a golf pro's bag. Over the course of a game, the pro picks and chooses clubs based on the demands of the shot. Sometimes he has to ponder his selection, but usually it is automatic. The pro senses the challenge ahead, swiftly pulls out the right tool, and elegantly puts it to work. That's how high-impact leaders operate, too. What are the six styles of leadership? None will shock workplace veterans. Indeed, each style, by name and brief description alone, will likely res onate with anyone who leads, is led, or as is the case with most of us, does both. Coercive leaders de mand immediate compliance. Authoritative lead ers mobilize people toward a vision. Affiliative leaders create emotional bonds and harmony. De mocratic leaders build consensus through partici pation. Pacesetting leaders expect excellence and self-direction. And coaching leaders develop people for the future. Close your eyes and you can surely imagine a col league who uses any one of these styles. You most likely use at least one yourself. What is new in this research, then, is its implications for action. First, it offers a fine-grained understanding of how different leadership styles affect performance and results. Second, it offers clear guidance on when a manager 80 Influence: t he ability to wield a range of persuasive tactics. Developing others: the propensity to bolster the abilities of others through feedback and guidance. Communication: skill at listening and at sending clear, convincing, and well-tuned messages. Change catalyst: proficiency in initiating new ideas and leading people in a new direction. Conflict management: the ability to de-escalate disagreements and orchestrate resolutions. Building bonds: proficiency at cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships. Teamwork and collaboration: competence at promot ing cooperat ion and building teams. should switch between them. It also strongly sug gests that switching flexibly is well advised. New, too, is the research's finding that each leadership style springs from different components of emo tional intelligence. Measuring Leadership's Impact It has been more than a decade since research first linked aspects of emotional intelligence to business results. The late David McClelland, a noted Har vard University psychologist, found that leaders with strengths in a critical mass of six or more emo tional intelligence competencies were far more ef fective than peers who lacked such strengths. For Daniel Goleman is the author of Emotional Intelligence (Bantam, 1995) and Working with Emotional Intelli gence (Bantam, 1998). He is cochairman of the Consor tium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Orga nizations, which is based at Rutgers U niversity's Graduate School of Applied Psychology in Piscataway, New Jersey. His article "What Makes a Leader!" ap peared in the November-December 1998 issue of HBR. He can be reached at goleman@favanet.com. To discuss this article, join HBR' authors and readers in s the HBR Forum at www.hbr.org/forum HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW March-April 2000 Leadership That Gets Results instance, when he analyzed the performance of di vision heads at a global food and beverage company, he found that among leaders with this critical mass of competence, 87% placed in the top third for an nual salary bonuses based on their business perfor mance. More telling, their divisions on average out performed yearly revenue targets by 15% to 20%. Those executives who lacked emotional intelligence were rarely rated as outstanding in their annual performance reviews, and their divisions underper formed by an average of almost 20%. Our research set out to gain a more molecular view of the links among leadership and emotional intelligence, and climate and performance. A team of McClelland's colleagues headed by Mary Fontaine and Ruth Jacobs from Hay/McBer studied data about or observed thousands of executives, noting specific behaviors and their impact on climate.1 How did each individual motivate direct reports? Manage change initiatives? Handle crises? It was in a later phase of the research that we identified which emotional intelligence capabilities drive the six leadership styles. How does he rate in terms of self-control and social skill? Does a leader show high or low levels of empathy? The team tested each executive's immediate sphere of influence for its climate. "Climate" is not an amorphous term. First defined by psychologists George Litwin and Richard Stringer and later re fined by McClelland and his colleagues, it refers to six key factors that influence an organization's working environment: its flexibility- that is, how free employees feel to innovate unencumbered by red tape,- their sense of responsibility to the organi zation; the level of standards that people set; the sense of accuracy about performance feedback and aptness of rewards; the clarity people have about mission and values; and finally, the level of com mitment to a common purpose. We found that all six leadership styles have a measurable effect on each aspect of climate. (For details, see the exhibit "Getting Molecular: The Im pact of Leadership Styles on Drivers of Climate.") Further, when we looked at the impact Getting Molecular: The Impact of Leadership of climate on financial re sults-such as return on sales, Styles on Drivers of Climate revenue growth, efficiency, Our research investigated how each leadership strongly positive-and a .21 correlation with and profitability-we found a style affected the six drivers of climate, or work responsibility- positive, but not as strong. In direct correlation between the ing atmosphere. The figures below show the other words, the style's correlation with rewards two. Leaders who used styles correlation between each leadership style and was more than twice that w ith responsibility. that positively affected the each aspect o f climate. So, for instance, if we According to the data, the authoritative climate had decidedly better look at the climate driver o f flexibility, we see leadership style has the most positive effect financial results than those that the coercive style has a -.28 correlation on climate, b u t three others-affiliative, who did not. That is not to say while the democratic style has a .28 correlation, democratic, and coa ch in g-fo llo w close that organizational climate equally strong in the opposite direction. Focusing behind. That said, the research indicates that is the only driver of perfor on the authoritative leadership style, we find no style should be relied on exclusively, and that it has a .54 correlation w ith rewardsmance. Economic conditions all have at least short-term uses. H A R VARD B U S I N E S S REVIEW March-April 2000 81 Leadership That Gets Results The Six Leadership Styles at a Glance C o e r c iv e A u t h o r i t a t iv e O u r research fo u n d th a t leaders use six D e m a n d s im m e d ia te M o b ilize s p e o p le c o m p lia n c e The leader's m o d u s o p e ra n d i styles,each s p rin g in g to w a rd a visio n "D o w h a t 1te ll yo u ." "C o m e w ith m e." fro m d iffe re n t c o m p o n e n ts o f e m o tio n a l The style in a phrase in te llig e n c e . Here is a s u m m a ry o f th e styles, U n d e rly in g e m o tio n a l D rive to achieve, in itia tiv e , S e lf-co n fid e n ce , e m p a th y, th e ir o rig in , w h e n th e y in te llig e n c e co m p e te n cie s se lf-c o n tro l c h a n g e ca ta lyst w o rk b e s t,a n d th e ir In a crisis, to kick sta rt a W h e n changes re q u ire a tio n 's c lim a te a n d th u s tu rn a ro u n d , o r w ith p ro b le m n e w visio n , o r w h e n a clear its p e rfo rm a n c e . e m p lo ye e s d ire c tio n is n e e d e d N e g a tive M o s t s tro n g ly p o s itiv e im p a c t o n an o rg a n iza W h e n th e style w o rk s best O verall im p a c t o n c lim a te and competitive dynamics matter enormously. But our analysis strongly suggests that climate accounts for nearly a third of results. And that's simply too much of an impact to ignore. The Styles in D etail Executives use six leadership styles, but only four of the six consistently have a positive effect on cli mate and results. Let's look then at each style of leadership in detail. (For a summary of the material that follows, see the chart "The Six Leadership Styles at a Glance.") The Coercive Style. The computer company was in crisis m ode-its sales and profits were falling, its stock was losing value precipitously, and its share holders were in an uproar. The board brought in a new CEO with a reputation as a turnaround artist. He set to work chopping jobs, selling off divisions, and making the tough decisions that should have been executed years before. The company was saved, at least in the short-term. From the start, though, the CEO created a reign of terror, bullying and demeaning his executives, roaring his displeasure at the slightest misstep. The company's top echelons were decimated not just by his erratic firings but also by defections. The CEO's direct reports, frightened by his tendency to blame the bearer of bad news, stopped bringing him any news at all. Morale was at an all-time low -a fact re flected in another downturn in the business after the short-term recovery. The CEO was eventually fired by the board of directors. It's easy to understand why of all the leadership styles, the coercive one is the least effective in most 82 situations. Consider what the style does to an orga nization's climate. Flexibility is the hardest hit. The leader's extreme top-down decision making kills new ideas on the vine. People feel so disrespected that they think, "I won't even bring my ideas u p they'll only be shot down." Likewise, people's sense of responsibility evaporates: unable to act on their own initiative, they lose their sense of ownership and feel little accountability for their performance. Some become so resentful they adopt the attitude, "I'm not going to help this bastard." Coercive leadership also has a damaging effect on the rewards system. Most high-performing workers are motivated by more than m oney-they seek the satisfaction of work well done. The coercive style erodes such pride. And finally, the style undermines one of the leader's prime tools-motivating people by showing them how their job fits into a grand, shared mission. Such a loss, measured in terms of diminished clarity and commitment, leaves people alienated from their own jobs, wondering, "How does any of this matter?" Given the impact of the coercive style, you might assume it should never be applied. Our research, however, uncovered a few occasions when it worked masterfully. Take the case of a division president who was brought in to change the direction of a food company that was losing money. His first act was to have the executive conference room demol ished. To him, the room -w ith its long marble table that looked like "the deck of the Starship Enter prise" - symbolized the tradition-bound formality that was paralyzing the company. The destruction of the room, and the subsequent move to a smaller, more informal setting, sent a message no one could H A R V A R D B U S IN E S S R EV IEW M a r c h - A p r il 2000 D e m o cra tic A f f i li a t i v e Creates harmony and builds emotional bonds const n u participation "People come first." P acese ttin g \\ r'o u g i C oaching Sets high standards for performance Develops people for the future "What do you think?" "Do as I do, now." "Try this." Empathy, building relationships, communication Collaboration team leadership, communication Conscientiousness, drive to achieve, initiative Developing others, empathy, self-awareness To heal rifts in a team or to motivate people during stressful circumstances To build buy-in or To get quick results from consensus, or to get input a highly motivated and horn valuable e m p l o y e compet ent team To help an employee improve performance or develop long-term strengths Positive Positive Positive Negative miss, and the division's culture changed quickly in its wake. That said, the coercive style should be used only with extreme caution and in the few situations when it is absolutely imperative, such as during a turnaround or when a hostile takeover is looming. In those cases, the coercive style can break failed business habits and shock people into new ways of working. It is always appropriate during a genuine emergency, like in the aftermath of an earthquake or a fire. And it can work with problem employees with whom all else has failed. But if a leader relies solely on this style or continues to use it once the emergency passes, the long-term impact of his in sensitivity to the morale and feelings of those he leads will be ruinous. The Authoritative Style. Tom was the vice presi dent of marketing at a floundering national restau rant chain that specialized in pizza. Needless to say, the company's poor performance troubled the se nior managers, but they were at a loss for what to do. Every Monday, they met to review recent sales, struggling to come up with fixes. To Tom, the ap proach didn't make sense. "We were always trying to figure out why our sales were down last week. We had the whole company looking backward in stead of figuring out what we had to do tomorrow." Tom saw an opportunity to change people's way of thinking at an off-site strategy meeting. There, the conversation began with stale truisms: the com pany had to drive up shareholder wealth and in crease return on assets. Tom believed those con cepts didn't have the power to inspire a restaurant manager to be innovative or to do better than a goodenough job. H A RV A R D B U S IN E S S REV IE W M a r c h - A p r il 2000 So Tom made a bold move. In the middle of a meeting, he made an impassioned plea for his col leagues to think from the customer's perspective. Customers want convenience, he said. The company was not in the restaurant business, it was in the busi ness of distributing high-quality, convenient-to-get pizza. That notion-and nothing else-should drive everything the company did. With his vibrant enthusiasm and clear vision-the hallmarks of the authoritative style-Tom filled a leadership vacuum at the company. Indeed, his con cept became the core of the new mission statement. But this conceptual breakthrough was just the begin ning. Tom made sure that the mission statement was built into the company's strategic planning pro cess as the designated driver of growth. And he en sured that the vision was articulated so that local restaurant managers understood they were the key to the company's success and were free to find new ways to distribute pizza. Changes came quickly. Within weeks, many lo cal managers started guaranteeing fast, new deliv ery times. Even better, they started to act like en trepreneurs, finding ingenious locations to open new branches: kiosks on busy street corners and in bus and train stations, even from carts in airports and hotel lobbies. Tom's success was no fluke. Our research indi cates that of the six leadership styles, the authori tative one is most effective, driving up every aspect of climate. Take clarity. The authoritative leader is a visionary,- he motivates people by making clear to them how their work fits into a larger vision for the organization. People who work for such lead ers understand that what they do matters and why. 83 L e a d e r s h ip T h a t Gets Results Authoritative leadership also maximizes commit ment to the organization's goals and strategy. By framing the individual tasks within a grand vision, the authoritative leader defines standards that re volve around that vision. When he gives perfor mance feedback-whether positive or negative-the singular criterion is whether or not that perfor mance furthers the vision. The standards for success are clear to all, as are the rewards. Finally, consider the style's impact on flexibility. An authoritative leader states the end but generally gives people plenty of leeway to devise their own means. Author itative leaders give people the freedom to innovate, experiment, and take calculated risks. Because of its positive impact, the authoritative style works well in almost any business situation. But it is particularly effective when a business is adrift. An authoritative leader charts a new course and sells his people on a fresh long-term vision. The authoritative style, powerful though it may be, will not work in every situation. The approach fails, for instance, when a leader is working with a team of experts or peers who are more experienced than he is; they may see the leader as pompous or out-of-touch. Another limitation: if a manager try ing to be authoritative becomes overbearing, he can undermine the egalitarian spirit of an effective team. Yet even with such caveats, leaders would be wise to grab for the authoritative "club" more often than not. It may not guarantee a hole in one, but it certainly helps with the long drive. The Affiliative Style. If the coercive leader de mands, "Do what I say," and the authoritative urges, "Come with me," the affiliative leader says, "People come first." This leadership style revolves around people - its proponents value individuals and their / / / / n authoritative leader states ^ the end but gives people Vt plenty of leeway to devise their own means. emotions more than tasks and goals. The affiliative leader strives to keep employees happy and to create harmony among them. He manages by building strong emotional bonds and then reaping the bene fits of such an approach, namely fierce loyalty. The style also has a markedly positive effect on commu nication. People who like one another a lot talk a lot. They share ideas; they share inspiration. And the 84 style drives up flexibility; friends trust one another, allowing habitual innovation and risk taking. Flexi bility also rises because the affiliative leader, like a parent who adjusts household rules for a maturing adolescent, doesn't impose unnecessary strictures on how employees get their work done. They give people the freedom to do their job in the way they think is most effective. As for a sense of recognition and reward for work well done, the affiliative leader offers ample posi tive feedback. Such feedback has special potency in the workplace because it is all too rare: outside of an annual review, most people usually get no feedback on their day-to-day efforts - or only nega tive feedback. That makes the affiliative leader's positive words all the more motivating. Finally, affiliative leaders are masters at building a sense of belonging. They are, for instance, likely to take their direct reports out for a meal or a drink, one-onone, to see how they're doing. They will bring in a cake to celebrate a group accomplishment. They are natural relationship builders. Joe Torre, the heart and soul of the New York Yankees, is a classic affiliative leader. During the 1999 World Series, Torre tended ably to the psyches of his players as they endured the emotional pres sure cooker of a pennant race. All season long, he made a special point to praise Scott Brosius, whose father had died during the season, for staying com m itted even as he mourned. At the celebration party after the team's final game, Torre specifically sought out right fielder Paul O'Neill. Although he had received the news of his father's death that morning, O'Neill chose to play in the decisive game-and he burst into tears the moment it ended. Torre made a point of acknowledging O'Neill's per sonal struggle, calling him a "warrior." Torre also used the spotlight of the victory celebration to praise two players whose return the following year was threatened by contract disputes. In doing so, he sent a clear message to the team and to the club's owner that he valued the players im m ensely-too much to lose them. Along with ministering to the emotions of his people, an affiliative leader may also tend to his own emotions openly. The year Torre's brother was near death awaiting a heart transplant, he shared his wor ries with his players. He also spoke candidly with the team about his treatment for prostate cancer. The affiliative style's generally positive impact makes it a good all-weather approach, but leaders should employ it particularly when trying to build team harmony, increase morale, improve commu nication, or repair broken trust. For instance, one executive in our study was hired to replace a ruthH A R VARD B U S IN E S S REVIEW March-April 2000 L e a d e r s h ip T h a t G e ts R e s u lts less team leader. The former leader had taken credit for his employees' work and had attempted to pit them against one another. His efforts ultimately failed, but the team he left behind was suspicious and weary. The new executive managed to mend the situation by unstintingly showing emotional honesty and rebuilding ties. Several months in, her leadership had created a renewed sense of commit ment and energy. Despite its benefits, the affiliative style should not be used alone. Its exclusive focus on praise can allow poor performance to go uncorrected; employ ees may perceive that mediocrity is tolerated. And because affiliative leaders rarely offer constructive advice on how to improve, employees must figure out how to do so on their own. When people need clear directives to navigate through complex chal lenges, the affiliative style leaves them rudderless. Indeed, if overly relied on, this style can actually steer a group to failure. Perhaps that is why many affiliative leaders, including Torre, use this style in close conjunction with the authoritative style. Au thoritative leaders state a vision, set standards, and let people know how their work is furthering the group's goals. Alternate that with the caring, nur turing approach of the affiliative leader, and you have a potent combination. The Democratic Style. Sister Mary ran a Catholic school system in a large metropolitan area. One of the schools-the only private school in an impover ished neighborhood-had been losing money for years, and the archdiocese could no longer afford to keep it open. When Sister Mary eventually got the order to shut it down, she didn't just lock the doors. She called a meeting of all the teachers and staff at the school and explained to them the details of the financial crisis - the first time anyone working at the school had been included in the business side of the institution. She asked for their ideas on ways to keep the school open and on how to handle the closing, should it come to that. Sister Mary spent much of her time at the meeting just listening. She did the same at later meetings for school par ents and for the community and during a successive series of meetings for the school's teachers and staff. After two months of meetings, the consensus was clear: the school would have to close. A plan was made to transfer students to other schools in the Catholic system. The final outcome was no different than if Sister Mary had gone ahead and closed the school the day she was told to. But by allowing the school's con stituents to reach that decision collectively, Sister Mary received none of the backlash that would have accompanied such a move. People mourned H A R V A R D B U S IN E S S RE V IE W March-April 2000 the loss of the school, but they understood its in evitability. Virtually no one objected. Compare that with the experiences of a priest in our research who headed another Catholic school. He, too, was told to shut it down. And he did-by fiat. The result was disastrous: parents filed law suits, teachers and parents picketed, and local newspapers ran editorials attacking his decision. It took a year to resolve the disputes before he could finally go ahead and close the school. Sister Mary exemplifies the democratic style in action-and its benefits. By spending time getting people's ideas and buy-in, a leader builds trust, re spect, and commitment. By letting workers them selves have a say in decisions that affect their goals and how they do their work, the democratic leader drives up flexibility and responsibility. And by lis tening to employees' concerns, the democratic leader learns what to do to keep morale high. Finally, because they have a say in setting their goals and the standards for evaluating success, people operat ing in a democratic system tend to be very realistic about what can and cannot be accomplished. However, the democratic style has its drawbacks, which is why its impact on climate is not as high as some of the other styles. One of its more exasperat ing consequences can be endless meetings where ideas are mulled over, consensus remains elusive, and the only visible result is scheduling more meet ings. Some democratic leaders use the style to put off making crucial decisions, hoping that enough thrashing things out will eventually yield a blind ing insight. In reality, their people end up feeling confused and leaderless. Such an approach can even escalate conflicts. When does the style work best? This approach is ideal when a leader is himself uncertain about the best direction to take and needs ideas and guidance from able employees. And even if a leader has a strong vision, the democratic style works well to generate fresh ideas for executing that vision. The democratic style, of course, makes much less sense when employees are not competent or informed enough to offer sound advice. And it al most goes without saying that building consensus is wrongheaded in times of crisis. Take the case of a CEO whose computer company was severely threatened by changes in the market. He always sought consensus about what to do. As competitors stole customers and customers' needs changed, he kept appointing committees to consider the situa tion. When the market made a sudden shift because of a new technology, the CEO froze in his tracks. The board replaced him before he could appoint yet another task force to consider the situation. The 85 L e a d e r s h ip T h a t Gets Results new CEO, while occasionally democratic and affiliative, relied heavily on the authoritative style, especially in his first months. The Pacesetting Style. Like the coercive style, the pacesetting style has its place in the leader's repertory, but it should be used sparingly. That's not what we expected to find. After all, the hall marks of the pacesetting style sound admirable. The leader sets extremely high performance stan dards and exemplifies them himself. He is obses sive about doing things better and faster, and he asks the same of everyone around him. He quickly pinpoints poor performers and demands more from them. If they don't rise to the occasion, he replaces them with people who can. You would think such an approach would improve results, but it doesn't. In fact, the pacesetting style destroys climate. Many employees feel overwhelmed by the paceset ter's demands for excellence, and their morale drops. Guidelines for working may be clear in the leader's head, but she does not state them clearly; she expects people to know what to do and even thinks, "If I have to tell you, you're the wrong person for the job." Work becomes not a matter of doing one's best along a clear course so much as second-guessing what the leader wants. At the same time, people often feel that the pacesetter doesn't trust them to work in their own way or to take initiative. Flexibility and responsibility evaporate; work becomes so task fo cused and routinized it's boring. As for rewards, the pacesetter either gives no feedback on how people are doing or jumps in to take over when he thinks they're lagging. And if the leader should leave, people feel directionless they're so used to "the expert" setting the rules. Fi nally, commitment dwindles under the regime of a pacesetting leader because people have no sense of how their personal efforts fit into the big picture. For an example of the pacesetting style, take the case of Sam, a biochemist in R&D at a large pharma ceutical company. Sam's superb technical expertise made him an early star: he was the one everyone turned to when they needed help. Soon he was pro moted to head of a team developing a new product. The other scientists on the team were as competent and self-motivated as Sam,- his metier as team leader became offering himself as a model of how to do first-class scientific work under tremendous dead line pressure, pitching in when needed. His team completed its task in record time. But then came a new assignment: Sam was put in charge of R&D for his entire division. As his tasks expanded and he had to articulate a vision, coordi nate projects, delegate responsibility, and help de velop others, Sam began to slip. Not trusting that 86 his subordinates were as capable as he was, he be came a micromanager, obsessed with details and taking over for others when their performance slack ened. Instead of trusting them to improve with guidance and development, Sam found himself working nights and weekends after stepping in to take over for the head of a floundering research team. Finally, his own boss suggested, to his relief, that he return to his old job as head of a product de velopment team. Although Sam faltered, the pacesetting style isn't always a disaster. The approach works well when all employees are self-motivated, highly competent, and need little direction or coordination-for exam ple, it can work for leaders of highly skilled and selfmotivated professionals, like R&D groups or legal teams. And, given a talented team to lead, pace setting does exactly that: gets work done on time or even ahead of schedule. Yet like any leadership style, pacesetting should never be used by itself. The Coaching Style. A product unit at a global computer company had seen sales plummet from twice as much as its competitors to only half as much. So Lawrence, the president of the manufac turing division, decided to close the unit and reassign its people and products. Upon hearing the news, James, the head of the doomed unit, decided to go over his boss's head and plead his case to the CEO. What did Lawrence do? Instead of blowing up at James, he sat down with his rebellious direct re port and talked over not just the decision to close the division but also James's future. He explained to James how moving to another division would help him develop new skills. It would make him a better leader and teach him more about the company's business. Lawrence acted more like a counselor than a tra ditional boss. He listened to James's concerns and hopes, and he shared his own. He said he believed James had grown stale in his current job; it was, after all, the only place he'd worked in the company. He predicted that James would blossom in a new role. The conversation then took a practical turn. James had not yet had his meeting with the CEOthe one he had impetuously demanded when he heard of his division's closing. Knowing th is-an d also knowing that the CEO unwaveringly supported the closing-Lawrence took the time to coach James on how to present his case in that meeting. "You don't get an audience with the CEO very often," he noted, "let's make sure you impress him with your thoughtfulness." He advised James not to plead his personal case but to focus on the business unit: "If he thinks you're in there for your own glory, he'll throw you out faster than you walked through the H A R V A R D B U S IN E S S R EV IE W M a r c h - A p r il 2000 L e a d e r s h ip T h a t G e ts R e s u lts door." And he urged him to put his ideas in writing; the CEO always appreciated that. Lawrence's reason for coaching instead of scold ing? "James is a good guy, very talented and prom ising," the executive explained to us, "and I don't want this to derail his career. I want him to stay with the company, I want him to work out, I want him to learn, I want him to benefit and grow. Just because he screwed up doesn't mean he's terrible." Lawrence's actions illustrate the coaching style par excellence. Coaching leaders help employees identify their unique strengths and weaknesses and tie them to their personal and career aspirations. They encourage employees to establish long-term development goals and help them conceptualize a plan for attaining them. They make agreements with their employees about their role and respon sibilities in enacting development plans, and they give plentiful instruction and feedback. Coaching leaders excel at delegating; they give employees challenging assignments, even if that means the tasks w on't be accomplished quickly. In other words, these leaders are willing to put up with short-term failure if it furthers long-term learning. Of the six styles, our research found that the coaching style is used least often. Many leaders told us they don't have the time in this high-pressure economy for the slow and tedious work of teaching people and helping them grow. But after a first ses sion, it takes little or no extra time. Leaders who ig nore this style are passing up a powerful tool: its impact on climate and performance are markedly positive. Admittedly, there is a paradox in coaching's posi tive effect on business performance because coach ing focuses primarily on personal development, not on immediate work-related tasks. Even so, coach ing improves results. The reason: it requires con stant dialogue, and that dialogue has a way of push ing up every driver of climate. Take flexibility. When an employee knows his boss watches him and cares about what he does, he feels free to exper iment. After all, he's sure to get quick and construc tive feedback. Similarly, the ongoing dialogue of coaching guarantees that people know what is ex pected of them and how their work fits into a larger vision or strategy. That affects responsibility and clarity. As for commitment, coaching helps there, too, because the style's implicit message is, "I be lieve in you, I'm investing in you, and I expect your best efforts." Employees very often rise to that challenge with their heart, mind, and soul. The coaching style works well in many business situations, but it is perhaps most effective when people on the receiving end are "up for it." For in HAR V A RD B U S IN E S S REVIEW M arch-A pril 2000 stance, the coaching style works particularly well when employees are already aware of their weak nesses and would like to improve their perfor mance. Similarly, the style works well when em ployees realize how cultivating new abilities can help them advance. In short, it works best with em ployees who want to be coached. eaders who have mastered four or more especially the authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching styles - have the best climate and business performance. By contrast, the coaching style makes little sense when employees, for whatever reason, are resistant to learning or changing their ways. And it flops if the leader lacks the expertise to help the employee along. The fact is, many managers are unfamiliar with or simply inept at coaching, particularly when it comes to giving ongoing performance feedback that motivates rather than creates fear or apathy. Some companies have realized the positive impact of the style and are trying to make it a core compe tence. At some companies, a significant portion of annual bonuses are tied to an executive's develop ment of his or her direct reports. But many organi zations have yet to take full advantage of this lead ership style. Although the coaching style may not scream "bottom-line results," it delivers them. Leaders N e e d M a n y Styles Many studies, including this one, have shown that the more styles a leader exhibits, the better. Leaders who have mastered four or m ore-especially the authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching styles-have the very best climate and business per formance. And the most effective leaders switch flexibly among the leadership styles as needed. Al though that may sound daunting, we witnessed it more often than you might guess, at both large cor porations and tiny start-ups, by seasoned veterans who could explain exactly how and why they lead and by entrepreneurs who claim to lead by gut alone. Such leaders don't mechanically match their style to fit a checklist of situations-they are far more fluid. They are exquisitely sensitive to the impact they are having on others and seamlessly adjust their style to get the best results. These are leaders, for example, who can read in the first min utes of conversation that a talented but underper87 Leadership That Gets Results forming employee has been demoralized by an u n sympathetic, do-it-the-way-I-tell-you manager and needs to be inspired through a reminder of why her work matters. Or that leader might choose to reen ergize the employee by asking her about her dreams and aspirations and finding ways to make her job more challenging. Or that initial conversation might signal that the employee needs an ultim atum : im prove or leave. For an example of fluid leadership in action, con sider Joan, the general manager of a major division at a global food and beverage company. Joan was ap pointed to her job while the division was in a deep crisis. It had not made its profit targets for six years; in the most recent year, it had missed by $50 m il lion. Morale among the top management team was miserable; m istru st and resentm ents were ram pant. Joan's directive from above was clear: turn the division around. Joan did so w ith a n im b len ess in sw itch in g among leadership styles that is rare. From the start, she realized she had a short window to demonstrate effective leadership and to establish rapport and trust. She also knew that she urgently needed to be informed about what was not working, so her first task was to listen to key people. Unlike I(f. which is largely genetic it changes little from childhood the skills of emotional intelligence can be learned at any age. It's not easy, however. Growing your emo tional intelligence takes practice and commitment. But the payoffs are well worth the investment. Consider the case of a marketing director for a division of a global food company. Jack, as I'll call him, was a classic pacesetter: highenergy. always striving to find better ways to get things done, and too eager to step in and take over when, say, someone seemed about to miss a deadline. Worse, Jack was prone to pounce on anyone who didn't seem to meet his standards, flying off the handle if a person merely deviated from completing a job in the order Jack thought best. Jack's leadership style had a predictably disastrous impact on Her first week on the job she had lunch and dinner meetings w ith each m ember of the management team. Joan sought to get each person's understand ing of the current situation. But her focus was not so much on learning how each person diagnosed the problem as on getting to know each manager as a person. Here Joan employed the affiliative style: she explored their lives, dreams, and aspirations. She also stepped into the coaching role, looking for ways she could help the team members achieve what they wanted in their careers. For instance, one manager who had been getting feedback that he was a poor team player confided his worries to her. He thought he was a good team member, but he was plagued by persistent complaints. Recognizing that he was a talented executive and a valuable asset to the company, Joan made an agreement w ith him to point out (in private) when his actions under mined his goal of being seen as a team player. She followed the one-on-one conversations with a three-day off-site meeting. Her goal here was team building, so that everyone would own whatever solution for the business problems emerged. Her initial stance at the off-site meeting was that of a democratic leader. She encouraged everyone to ex press freely their frustrations and complaints. climate and business results. After two years of stagnant performance. Jack's boss suggested he seek out a coach. Jack wasn't pleased but. re alizing his own job was on the line, he complied. The coach, an expert in teaching people how to increase their emo tional intelligence, began with a 360-degree evaluation of Jack. A diagnosis from multiple view points is essential in improving emotional intelligence because those who need the most help usu ally have blind spots. In fact, our research found that top-performing leaders overestimate their strengths on. at most, one emotional intelli gence ability, whereas poor per formers overrate themselves on four or more. Jack was not that far off. but he did rate himself more glowingly than his direct reports, who gave him especially low grades on emotional self-control and empathy. Initially, Jack had some trouble accepting the feedback data. But when his coach showed him how those weaknesses were tied to his inability to display leadership styles dependent on those competencies especially the authoritative, affilia tive, and coaching styles-Jack real ized he had to improve if he wanted to advance in the company. Making such a connection is essential. The reason: improving emotional intel ligence isn't done in a weekend or during a seminar-it takes diligent practice on the job, over several months. If people do not see the value of the change, they will not make that effort. Once Jack zeroed in on areas for improvement and committed him self to making the effort, he and his coach worked up a plan to turn his L e a d e r s h ip T h a t G e ts R e s u lts The next day, Joan had the group focus on solu tions: each person made three specific proposals about what needed to be done. As Joan clustered the suggestions, a natural consensus emerged about priorities for the business, such as cutting costs. As the group came up with specific action plans, Joan got the commitment and buy-in she sought. With that vision in place, Joan shifted into the au thoritative style, assigning accountability for each follow-up step to specific executives and holding them responsible for their accomplishment. For ex ample, the division had been dropping prices on products without increasing its volume. One obvi ous solution was to raise prices, but the previous VP of sales had dithered and had let the problem fes ter. The new VP of sales now had responsibility to adjust the price points to fix the problem. Over the following months, Joan's main stance was authoritative. She continually articulated the group's new vision in a way that reminded each member of how his or her role was crucial to achiev ing these goals. And, especially during the first few weeks of the plan's implementation, Joan felt that the urgency of the business crisis justified an occa sional shift into the coercive style should someone fail to meet his or her responsibility. As she put it, day-to-day job into a learning labo ratory. For instance. Jack discovered he was empathetic when things were calm, but in a crisis, he tuned out others. This tendency ham pered his ability to Listen to what people were telling him in the very moments he most needed to do so. Jack's plan required him to focus on his behavior during tough situa tions. As soon as he felt himself tensing up, his job was to immedi ately step back, let the other person speak, and then ask clarifying ques tions. The point was to not act judg mental or hostile under pressure. The change didn't come easily, but with practice Jack learned to defuse his flare-ups by entering into a dialogue instead of launching a harangue. Although he didn't always agree with them, at least he gave people a chance to make their case. At the same time. Jack also practiced giving his direct reports more positive feedback and re minding them of how their work "I had to be brutal about this follow-up and make sure this stuff happened. It was going to take disci pline and focus." The results? Every aspect of climate improved. People were innovating. They were talking about the division's vision and crowing about their com mitment to new, clear goals. The ultimate proof of Joan's fluid leadership style is written in black ink: after only seven months, her division exceeded its yearly profit target by $5 million. Expanding Your Repertory Few leaders, of course, have all six styles in their repertory, and even fewer know when and how to use them. In fact, as we have brought the findings of our research into many organizations, the most common responses have been, "But I have only two of those!" and, "I can't use all those styles. It wouldn't be natural." Such feelings are understandable, and in some cases, the antidote is relatively simple. The leader can build a team w ith mem bers who employ styles she lacks. Take the case of a VP for manu facturing. She successfully ran a global factory system largely by using the affiliative style. She contributed to the group's mission. And he restrained himself from micromanaging them. Jack met with his coach every week or two to review his progress and get advice on specific problems. For instance, occasionally Jack would find himself falling back on his old pacesetting tactics-cutting people off, jumping in to take over, and blowing up in a rage. Almost immediately, he would regret it. So he and his coach dissected those relapses to figure out what triggered the old ways and what to do the next time a similar moment arose. Such \"relapse prevention" measures inoculate people against future lapses or just giving up. Over a sixmonth period. Jack made real improvement. His own records showed he had reduced the number of flare-ups from one or more a day at the beginning to just one or two a month. The climate had improved sharply, and the division's numbers were starting to creep upward. Why does improving an emo tional intelligence competence take months rather than days? Because the emotional centers of the brain, not just the neocortex, are in volved. The neocortex, the thinking brain that learns technical skills and purely cognitive abilities, gains knowledge very quickly, but the emotional brain does not. To mas ter a new behavior, the emotional centers need repetition and prac tice. Improving your emotional intelligence, then, is akin to chang ing your habits. Brain circuits that carry leadership habits have to unlearn the old ones and replace them with the new. The more often a behavioral sequence is repeated, the stronger the underlying brain circuits become. At some point, the new neural pathways become the brain's default option. When that happened, Jack was able to go through the paces of leadership ef fortlessly. using styles that worked for him -an d the whole company. L e a d e r s h ip T h a t G e ts R e s u lts was on the road constantly, meeting with plant managers, attending to their pressing concerns, and letting them know how much she cared about them personally. She left the division's strategy extreme efficiency-to a trusted lieutenant with a keen understanding of technology, and she dele gated its performance standards to a colleague who was adept at the authoritative approach. She also had a pacesetter on her team who always visited the plants with her. An alternative approach, and one I would rec ommend more, is for leaders to expand their own style repertories. To do so, leaders must first under stand which emotional intelligence competencies underlie the leadership styles they are lacking. They can then work assiduously to increase their quotient of them. For instance, an affiliative leader has strengths in three emotional intelligence competencies: in em pathy, in building relationships, and in communi cation. Empathy-sensing how people are feeling in the m om ent-allow s the affiliative leader to re spond to employees in a way that is highly congru ent with that person's emotions, thus building rap port. The affiliative leader also displays a natural ease in forming new relationships, getting to know someone as a person, and cultivating a bond. Finally, the outstanding affiliative leader has mastered the art of interpersonal communication, particularly in saying just the right thing or making the apt sym bolic gesture at just the right moment. So if you are primarily a pacesetting leader who wants to be able to use the affiliative style more often, you would need to improve your level of em pathy and, perhaps, your skills at building relation ships or communicating effectively. As another ex ample, an authoritative leader who wants to add the democratic style to his repertory might need to work on the capabilities of collaboration and com munication. Such advice about adding capabilities may seem simplistic - "Go change yourself" - but enhancing emotional intelligence is entirely possi ble with practice. (For more on how to improve emotional intelligence, see the sidebar "Growing Your Emotional Intelligence.") M o re Science, Less A rt Like parenthood, leadership will never be an exact science. But neither should it be a complete mys tery to those who practice it. In recent years, re search has helped parents understand the genetic, psychological, and behavioral components that affect their "job performance." With our new re search, leaders, too, can get a clearer picture of what it takes to lead effectively. And perhaps as impor tant, they can see how they can make that happen. The business environment is continually chang ing, and a leader must respond in kind. Hour to hour, day to day, week to week, executives must play their leadership styles like a pro -u sin g the right one at just the right time and in the right mea sure. The payoff is in the results. 1 . Daniel Goleman consults with Hay/McBer on leadership development. 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