Genetically Modified Organisms Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are products of artificial manipulation and alteration of a species' genetic material in a laboratory using genetic engineers. Plant, animal, bacteria, and virus genes may be combined or may be crossbred to produce another kind of species that do not naturally occur in the environment.One of the most controversial issues on science and technology is the introduction of genetically modified seeds in the agriculture sector that resulted in increased crop yield. New technologies are used to ewo artificially develop traits in plants, such as resistance to browning and pests. With the aim to improve harvest and the agriculture sector as a whole, humans seem to be disinterested in preserving genetic diversity the natural way. Figure 34: Genetically modified tomato https://mronline.org/2018/11/24/gmo-potato-creator-now-fears-its-impact-on-human-health/ Increased crop yield, pest resistance, and other benefits of GMOs are indeed advantageous, yet there are also disadvantages that need to be studied comprehensively. In addition, the growing concern with how GMOs may affect consumers' health and the environment needs to be addressed. Genetic engineering, usually associated with recombinant DNA technology, is founded on the work of many scientists over the years. In 1953, the discovery of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick open the gates for the countless possibilities of genetic engineering. In 1973, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen were the first scientists to genetically modify an organism by combining genes from two different E. coli. In 1982, the US Supreme Court ruled to allow the patenting of GMOs. This ruling allowed the Exxon Oil Company to start using a microorganism that can consume oil. In 1982, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first GMO - Humulin, a type of insulin produced using genetically engineered E. coli bacteria to be available in the market. In 1993, FDA approved bovine somatotropin (bST), a metabolic protein hormone use to increase milk production in dairy cows for commercial use. In 1994, FDA approved the Flavr Savr tomato for sale on grocery stores. This kind of tomato has a delayed- ripening effect that gives a longer shelf life compared with natural tomatoes. Figure 35: Flavr Savr tomato https://sobobro.wordpress.com/2015/11/17/the-flavr-savr-sparks-controversy/ In 1995, Bt Potatoes and Corn, and Roundup Ready Soybeans were approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In 1996, weeds resistant to glyphosate, the herbicide used for many GMO crops, were detected in Australia. Research shows that the super weeds are 7 to 11 times moreresistant to glyphosate than the standard susceptible population. In the same year, Dolly, the rst cloned animal, was born. In 1997, European Union ruled in favor of mandatory labeling on all GMO food products, including animal feed. In 1998, a genetically modied papaya in Hawaii was found to be resistant to the Ring spot virus and produced the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin, an insecticide that is not harmful to humans. Starting 1999, over 100 million acres worldwide are planted with genetically engineered seeds. In 2000, golden rice was developed in the Philippines to address vitamin A deciency, which is a public health issue in Asian countries where rice is a staple food crop. Golden rice is a variety (Oryza saliva) genetically modied to biosynthesize beta- carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. in the edible parts of rice. Additional three beta- carotene synthesize genes differentiate the golden rice from its parental strain. The introduction of golden rice was opposed by environmental and anti-globalization advocates because GMO was thought to compromise food production, nutrition, and nancial security. In 2003, a Bttoxin-resistant caterpillars-cum-moth, Helicoverpa zen, was found feasting on GMO Bt cotton crops in the southern United States. In 2006, Yorkshire pigs were genetically modied to produce offspring that produce the enzyme phytase in their saliva to digest plant phosphorous, unlike that of normal pigs. In 2011, a research in eastern Quebec found Bt toxins in the blood of pregnant women showed evidence that the toxin could be passed on to the babies. In 2012, French farmer Paul Francois sued Monsanto for chemical poisoning that he claimed was caused by the pesticide Lasso, which was part of the Roundup Ready line of products. He won the case. As early as 2013, corn and poplars were genetically modied and used to produce biofuel, which is regarded as an efcient substitute for petroleum products. In 2014, the patent on the Roundup Ready line of genetically engineered see" ended. 1 9/23 Numerous GMOs are produced all over the world. Those mentioned here involve mutation. Science agrees that the majority of mutations attempted on a species have the probability to fail miserably, and the individual plant/ animal would not survive (Mayr, 2007). The date, the production and consumption of GMOs are being argued upon due to their safety alongside the right of humans to modify naturally occurring organisms. New organisms created using genetic engineering can pose ecological issues because the long- term effects of genetic engineering to the environment is uncertain. GMOs may cause imbalance in the ecology of a region just as what exotic species do. An accident in genetically engineering a virus or bacteria, for example, could result in super bacteria that display antimicrobial resistance, which may cause a serious epidemic when released. Gene Therapy Gene therapy is the method of inserting genes or nucleic acid into cells as a drug to treat genetic diseases. In 1972, Theodore Friedman and Richard Roblin proposed that people with genetic disorders can be treated by replacing defective DNA with good DNA. In 1985, Dr. W. French Anderson and Dr. Michael Blasse worked together to show that cells of patients with Adenosine functioning deominose (ADA) deciency can be corrected "- 99\"\" in tissue culture. In 1990, the rst approved '_ gene therapy clinical research took place at the ' " : '' National Institute of Health (NIH) under the Gene augmentation therapy team of Dr. Anderson. It was conducted on a \"gagging 'e"::;';1t;'l'|;'\"9 four-year-old girl who had ADA deciency. In gene 1993, the rst somatic treatment that produced a permanent genetic change was performed. Figure 36: Gene Augmentation Therapy ht:www.ornm.rf wh-I-n-thra The rst commercial gene therapy product Gendicine was approved in China in 2003 for the treatment of certain cancers. Due to some clinical successes since 2006, gene therapy gained greater attention from researchers but was still considered as an experimental technique. In 2016, the Committee for Medicinal Products of Human Use (Cl-IMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) endorsed the gene therapy treatment called Strimvelis that was approved by the European Commission in June 2018. Some studies transplanted genes to speed up the destruction of cancer cells. Gene or cell therapies have emerged as realistic prospects for the treatment of cancer, and involve the delivery of genetic information to a tumor to facilitate the production of therapeutic proteins. This area of gene therapy still needs further studies before an efcient and safe gene therapy procedure is adopted (Gene Revolution: Issues and Impacts, n.d., Wirth et a1., 2013) Ethical Issues in Genetic Engineering 20/ 23 Various concerns on genetic engineering arise, making gene therapy and GMO very controversial innovations in science and technology. Others support that it is unethical for humans to have a hand in genetically altering and engineering organisms. There are instances when genetic engineering have caused severe repercussions to public health. Until today. cloning is still unacceptable to many for it violates the belief that only a higher being should be responsible for the existence of organisms on earth. There are also ethical and moral issues on stem cell therapy as it makes use of stem cells sourced from human embryos and thus destroys them. These concerns regarding genetic engineering and gene therapy are rooted in the question of whether or not humans are playing gods in the alteration of genes of organisms. Genetic engineering also poses problems in agriculture. Hence, there is a need to study the ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems. Agroeoology as a eld of study that presents novel management approaches on farming systems that may help address concerns regarding the effect of GMOs on biodiversity and the health of the consumers. Further researches as well as clinical experiments to outline functional mechanisms, predictive approaches, patient-related studies, and upcoming challenges should be done to address existing problems in the development of and to acquire perspectives in gene therapy