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Chapter 18 \"Managerial Accounting Concepts/Job Costing\" from Accounting Principles: A Business Perspective, Financial Accounting (Chapters 9-18) by Hermanson, Edwards, and Maher is available under Creative Commons license Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0. Textbook Equity (2011) 18 Managerial accounting concepts/job costing 18.1 Learning objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Compare and contrast managerial accounting and financial accounting. Describe the basic components of a products cost. Explain the difference between product costs and period costs. Compare financial reporting by a merchandiser to that of a manufacturer and prepare a statement of cost of goods manufactured, an income statement, and a balance sheet for a manufacturer. Explain the pattern of cost flows for a company. Compare and contrast different production methods and accounting systems. Describe job cost flows and determine the cost of jobs. Explain how and why predetermined overhead rates are computed. Describe the differences in net income under absorption costing and variable costing (appendix). 18.2 A manager's perspective Ann Francis Manager, Consumer Affairs Administration The Coca-Cola Company Regardless of the area of business in which they choose to make their careers, students, especially when they reach the management level, will inevitably have financial responsibilities. As a manager, I need to understand some basic accounting information in order to make decisions and to process the information flow in and out of my office. For example, I manage a department budget, and it is my responsibility to track cash inflow and outflow on a regular basis to ensure that the budget is administered appropriately. I track all our invoices, then reconcile them with a "Deck" report, 540 which we receive from accounting. I also order supplies for our department, and that needs to be managed within a budget as well. Every year we review our department's past expenditures and our anticipated expenditures, then establish a budget for the next year. At this point, we also make decisions about capital expenditures such as purchasing new computer equipment, and those plans are worked into the capital budget. Aside from general administration, I am also responsible for a program called "Coca-Cola Cares", an employee hotline set up in 1992 to provide a vehicle for employees to report any problems they notice in the marketplace such as broken vending machines or inappropriate use of our trademark. I receive weekly and monthly reports to assess improvements based on increases and decreases in the number of calls we receive. Another group under my management is telemarketing services, an internal service set up to help Coca-Cola associates with market research and customer service projects. Since independent telemarketing services can be very expensive, this system allows us to maintain high quality service to Coca-Cola customers in the most economically feasible way. Have you ever considered starting or running a business, or know someone who has? Have you considered providing management skills to a nonprofit organization? If so, then you realize that good decisions are based on good information. Managerial accounting helps managers make good decisions. Managerial accounting provides information about the cost of goods and services, whether a product is profitable, whether to invest in a new business venture, and how to budget. It compares actual performance to planned performance and facilitates many other important decisions critical to the success of organizations. The remaining chapters in this book focus on managerial accounting. This chapter provides an overview of managerial accounting, defines cost terms, and shows how to determine the cost of a particular type of product known as a job. 541 18.3 Compare managerial accounting with financial accounting Whereas financial accounting provides financial information primarily for external use, managerial accounting information is for internal use. By reporting on the financial activities of the organization, financial accounting provides information needed by investors and creditors. Most managerial decisions require more detailed information than that provided by external financial reports. For instance, in their external financial statements, large corporations such as General Electric Company show single amounts on their balance sheets for inventory. However, managers need more detailed information about the cost of each of several hundred products. We show the fundamental differences between managerial and financial accounting in the chart. Financial accounting Managerial accounting Users External users of information - usually shareholders, Internal users of information - usually managers. financial analysts, and creditors Compliance with generally accepted Accounting Principles Must comply with generally accepted accounting principles. Need not comply with generally accepted accounting principles. Internal cost/benefit evaluation determines how much information is enough. Future versus past Uses historical data. May use estimates of the future for budgeting and decision making. Detail presented Presents summary data, costs, revenues, and profits. More detailed data are presented about product. Accountants currently face a big challenge: designing information systems that provide information for multiple purposes. Some people at lower levels in the organization need detailed information, but not the big picture provided by a company's income statement. However, managers at top levels need to see the big picture. All of you will use accounting information in your careers. Therefore, you need to know enough about accounting to get the information you need for decision making. Managerial accountants face many choices involving ethics. For example, managers are responsible for achieving financial targets such as net income. 542 Managers who fail to achieve these targets may lose their jobs. If a division or company is having trouble achieving financial performance targets, managers may be tempted to manipulate the accounting numbers. In its Standards of Ethical Conduct for Management Accountants, the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) states that management accountants have an obligation to maintain the highest levels of ethical conduct by maintaining professional competency, refraining from disclosing confidential information, and maintaining integrity and objectivity in their work. 25 The standards recommend that people faced with ethical conflicts follow the company's established policies that deal with such conflicts. If the policies do not resolve the conflict, accountants should consider discussing the matter with their superiors, potentially going as high as the audit committee of the board of directors. In extreme cases, the accountants may have no alternative but to resign. 18.4 Merchandiser and manufacturer accounting: Differences in cost concepts Cost is a financial measure of the resources used or given up to achieve a stated purpose. Product costs are the costs a company assigns to units produced. Product costs are the costs of making a product, such as an automobile; the cost of making and serving a meal in a restaurant; or the cost of teaching a class in a university. Manufacturing companies use the most complex product costing methods. To ensure that you understand how and why product costing is done in manufacturing companies, we use many manufacturing company examples. However, since many of you could have careers in service or merchandising companies, we also use nonmanufacturing examples. 25 See Standards of Ethical Conduct for Management Accountants (Montvale, N.J.: Institute of Management Accountants, June 1, 1983.) 543 An ethical perspective: High pressure sales tactics and creative accounting The most common financial fraud is premature recording of revenues. For instance, a manager or accountant recorded a sale before the end of Year 1 when, in fact, the sale occurred in Year 2. That sale and its profits appear on the Year 1 financial statements, instead of the Year 2 financial statements. A company known as Comserv provides an example of this type of fraud. Comserv was a software development company that installed specialized software for companies. Comserv recorded revenue for a software installation as follows: First, it recorded a portion of the revenue when the customer signed a contract. Second, it recorded the rest of the revenue when the installation was complete. This approach complied with generally accepted accounting principles for external reporting and with company policy for internal reporting. Using this method, salespeople had incentives to pressure customers to sign contracts before the end of the fiscal year. Subsequent investigations by Comserv's external auditors and the Securities and Exchange Commission uncovered several fraudulent activities. For instance, employees backdated sales contracts by recording a contract signed on January 28 of Year 2 as being signed on December 28 of Year 1. (The end of the fiscal year was December 31.) Comserv salespeople also persuaded customers to sign contracts for software installations before the end of the fiscal year while providing a separate side agreement that allowed customers to withdraw from the deal at a later date. Because of this side agreement, the company should not have recorded revenue at the time the contract was signed. Comserv should have waited until customers could no longer withdraw from the contract. The accounting department, not knowing of the separate side agreement, recorded revenue at the time of the contract. 544 The Securities and Exchange Commission alleged many people at Comserv were involved in fraudulent activities, including salespeople and accountants who unwittingly supported these activities. In the end, several people were charged with committing fraud by the Securities and Exchange Commission, and the company was taken over by another company in the computer software industry. Based on the authors' research of Securities and Exchange Commission files and court testimony. In manufacturing companies, a product's cost is made up of three cost elements: direct material costs, direct labor costs, and manufacturing overhead costs. Direct materials Materials are unprocessed items used in the manufacturing process. Direct materials are those materials used only in making the product and are clearly and easily traceable to a particular product. For example, iron ore is a direct material to a steel company because the iron ore is clearly traceable to the finished product, steel. In turn, steel becomes a direct material to an automobile manufacturer. Some materials (such as glue and thread used in manufacturing furniture) may become part of the finished product, but tracing those materials to a particular product would require more effort than is sensible. Such materials, called indirect materials or supplies, are included in manufacturing overhead. Indirect materials are materials used in the manufacture of a product that cannot, or will not for practical reasons, be traced directly to the product being manufactured. Indirect materials are part of overhead, which we will discuss later. Direct labor Direct labor costs include the labor costs of all employees actually working on materials to convert them into finished goods. As with direct material costs, direct labor costs of a product include only those labor costs clearly traceable to, or readily identifiable with, the finished product. The wages paid to a construction worker, a pizza delivery driver, and an assembler in an electronics company are examples of direct labor. Many employees receive fringe benefitsemployers pay for payroll taxes, pension costs, and paid vacations. These fringe benefit costs can significantly increase the 545 direct labor hourly wage rate. Some companies treat fringe benefit costs as direct labor. Other companies include fringe benefit costs in overhead if they can be traced to the product only with great difficulty and effort. Firms account for some labor costs (for example, wages of materials handlers, custodial workers, and supervisors) as indirect labor because the expense of tracing these costs to products would be too great. These indirect labor costs are part of overhead. Indirect labor consists of the cost of labor that cannot, or will not for practical reasons, be traced to the products being manufactured. Overhead In a manufacturing company, overhead is generally called manufacturing overhead. (You may also see other names for manufacturing overhead, such as factory overhead, factory indirect costs, or factory burden.) Service companies use service overhead, and construction companies use construction overhead. Any of these companies may just use the term overhead rather than specifying it as manufacturing overhead, service overhead, or construction overhead. Some people confuse overhead with selling and administrative costs. Overhead is part of making the good or providing the service, whereas selling costs result from sales activity and administrative costs result from running the business. In general, overhead refers to all costs of making the product or providing the service except those classified as direct materials or direct labor. (Some service organizations have direct labor but not direct materials.) In manufacturing companies, manufacturing overhead includes all manufacturing costs except those accounted for as direct materials and direct labor. Manufacturing overhead costs are manufacturing costs that must be incurred but that cannot or will not be traced directly to specific units produced. In addition to indirect materials and indirect labor, manufacturing overhead includes depreciation and maintenance on machines and factory utility costs. Look at Exhibit 61 for more manufacturing overhead costs. Selling costs Selling costs are costs incurred to obtain customer orders and get the finished product in the customers' possession. Advertising, market research, sales salaries and commissions, and delivery and storage of finished goods are selling costs. The costs of delivery and storage of finished goods are selling costs because they are incurred after production has been completed. Therefore, the costs of 546 storing materials are part of manufacturing overhead, whereas the costs of storing finished goods are a part of selling costs. Remember that retailers, wholesalers, manufacturers, and service organizations all have selling costs. Administrative costs Administrative costs are nonmanufacturing costs that include the costs of top administrative functions and various staff departments such as accounting, data processing, and personnel. Executive salaries, clerical salaries, office expenses, office rent, donations, research and development costs, and legal costs are administrative costs. As with selling costs, all organizations have administrative costs. Companies also classify costs as product costs and period costs. Product costs are the costs incurred in making products. These costs include the costs of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. Period costs are closely related to periods of time rather than units of products. For this reason, firms expense (deduct from revenues) period costs in the period in which they are incurred. Accountants treat all selling and administrative costs as period costs for external financial reporting. Indirect labor: Janitors in factory buildings Supervisors in factory buildings Materials storeroom personnel Cost accountant Indirect materials: Oil Nails Repairs and maintenance on factory buildings and equipment Payroll taxes and fringe benefits for manufacturing employees Depreciation on factory buildings and equipment Insurance and taxes on factory property and inventories Utilities for factory buildings Exhibit 61: Manufacturing overhead costs To illustrate, assume a company pays its sales manager a fixed salary. Even though the manager may be working on projects to benefit the company in future accounting periods, it expenses the sales manager's salary in the period incurred because the expense cannot be traced to the production of a specific product. 547 An accounting perspective: Business insight Many service organizations have inventories. For example, consulting firms, public accounting firms, and law firms have inventories of work not yet billed to clients. The inventories in service companies are less tangible than the inventories in manufacturing companies. Inventories represent the time and talent that have gone into the job. In service companies, this includes working papers and documents or simply the ideas of the people doing the work. 18.5 Financial reporting by manufacturing companies Many of you will work in manufacturing companies or provide services for them. Others will work in retail or service organizations that do business with manufacturers. This section will help you understand how manufacturing companies work and how to read both their internal and external financial statements. Assume you own a bicycle store and purchase bicycles and accessories to sell to customers. To determine your profitability, you would subtract the cost of bicycles and accessories from your gross sales as cost of goods sold. However, if you owned the manufacturing company that made the bicycles, you would base your cost of goods sold on the cost of manufacturing those bicycles. Accounting for manufacturing costs is more complex than accounting for costs of merchandise purchased that is ready for sale. Perhaps the most important accounting difference between merchandisers and manufacturers relates to the differences in the nature of their activities. A merchandiser purchases finished goods ready to be sold. On the other hand, a manufacturer must purchase raw materials and use production equipment and employee labor to transform the raw materials into finished products. Thus, while a merchandiser has only one type of inventorymerchandise available for salea manufacturer has three typesunprocessed materials, partially 548 complete work in process, and ready-for-sale finished goods. Instead of one inventory account, three different inventory accounts are necessary to show the cost of inventory in various stages of production. Looking at Exhibit 62, you can see how the inventory cost flows differ between manufacturing and merchandising companies. We compare a manufacturer's cost of goods sold section of the income statement to that same section of the merchandiser's income statement in Exhibit 63. There are two major differences in these cost of goods sold sections: (1) goods ready to be sold are referred to as merchandise inventory by a merchandiser and finished goods inventory by a manufacturer, and (2) the net cost of purchases for a merchandiser is equivalent to the cost of goods manufactured by a manufacturer. Exhibit 62: Comparison of inventory cost flows Merchandiser Cost of goods sold: Merchandise inventory, January 1 Net cost of purchases $ 25,000 165,000 Cost of goods available for sale Merchandise inventory, December 31 Cost of goods sold $ 190,000 30,000 $ 160,000 Manufacturer Cost of goods sold: Finished goods inventory, January 1 $ 50,000 Cost of goods manufactured (from statement of cost of goods 1,100,000 manufactured) Cost of goods available for sale $1,150,000 Finished goods inventory, December 31 60,000 Cost of goods sold $1,090,000 Exhibit 63: Cost of goods sold comparison The statement of cost of goods manufactured supports the cost of goods sold figure on the income statement. (See the USD 1,100,000 cost of goods 549 manufactured in Exhibit 63.) The two most important numbers on this statement are the cost to manufacture and the cost of goods manufactured. Be careful not to confuse the terms cost to manufacture and cost of goods manufactured with each other or with the cost of goods sold. We depict the relationship among these terms in Exhibit 64. Cost to manufacture includes the costs of all resources put into production during the period. Cost of goods manufactured consists of the cost of all goods completed during the period. It includes cost to manufacture plus the beginning work in process inventory minus the ending work in process inventory. Cost of goods sold includes the cost of goods manufactured plus the beginning finished goods inventory minus the ending finished goods inventory. Look at Exhibit 65, the statement of cost of goods manufactured for Farside Manufacturing Company for 2010. Farside Manufacturing makes calendars and books. Note how the statement shows the costs incurred for direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. The statement totals these three costs as cost to manufacture during the period. When adding beginning work in process inventory and deducting ending work in process inventory from the cost to manufacture, we obtain cost of goods manufactured or completed. Cost of goods sold does not appear on the cost of goods manufactured statement but on the income statement. To make the manufacturer's income statement more understandable to readers of the financial statements, accountants do not show all of the details that appear in the cost of goods manufactured statement. In Exhibit 66 on the next page, we show the income statement for Farside Manufacturing Company. Notice in Exhibit 66 the relationship of the statement of cost of goods manufactured to the income statement. 550 Exhibit 64: Relationship of cost to manufacture, cost of goods manufactured, and cost of goods sold Farside manufactured company Statement of cost of goods manufactured For the year ended 2010 December 31 Direct materials Materials inventory, January 1 Materials purchases Materials available for use Less: Materials inventory, December 31 Materials used Direct labor Manufacturing overhead Indirect labor Maintenance and repairs expense Factory utilities expense Depreciation expense - factory building Depreciation expense - factory equipment Other expense - factory Total manufacturing overhead Cost to manufacture Add: Work in process inventory, January 1 $ 40,000 480,000 $520,000 30,000 $490,000 380,000 $ 120,000 60,000 10,000 20,000 30,000 20,000 Less: Work in process inventory, December 31 Cost of goods manufactured 260,000 $1,130,000 30,000 $1,160,000 60,000 $1,100,000 Exhibit 65: Statement of cost of goods manufactured The cost of goods manufactured appears in the cost of goods sold section of the income statement. The cost of goods manufactured is in the same place that purchases would be presented on a merchandiser's income statement. We add cost of goods manufactured to beginning finished goods inventory to derive cost of goods 551 available for sale. This is similar to the merchandiser who presents purchases added to beginning merchandise to derive goods available for sale. Farside manufacturing company Income statement For the year ended 2010 December 31 Sales Cost of goods sold: Finished goods inventory, January 1 $ 50,000 Cost of goods manufactured (see statement of cost of goods manufactured in Exhibit 65) 1,100,000 Cost of goods available for sale $1,150,000 Less: Finished goods inventory, December 31 60,000 Cost of goods sold Gross margin Operating expenses: Selling expenses $ 300,000 Administrative expenses 200,000 Total operating expenses Income from operations $1,800,000 1,090,000 $ 710,000 500,000 $ 210,000 Note: Income statements presented in external financial statements also include nonoperating revenues and expenses and income taxes. Exhibit 66: Income statement of a manufacturer When financial statements are released to the public, it is common to further simplify the income statement. These simplified statements show only the items and amounts in the right column of Exhibit 66, not the details in the left column. Unlike a merchandiser's balance sheet that reports a single inventory amount, the balance sheet for a manufacturer typically shows materials, work in process, and finished goods inventories separately. A manufacturer's balance sheet may also show greater detail in the property, plant, and equipment section because of the significant investment in plant assets. 18.6 The general cost accumulation model In general, companies match the flow of costs to the physical flow of products through the production process, as shown in Exhibit 67. They place materials received from suppliers in the materials storeroom. They also record the cost of those materials when purchasing them. As they are needed for production, the materials move from the materials storeroom to the production departments, and their cost is assigned to those production departments, as shown in Exhibit 67. 552 During production, the materials processed by workers and machines become partially manufactured products. At any time during production, these partially manufactured products are collectively known as work in process. For example, if accountants compute the inventory when the company has partially finished products at the end of the year, this inventory is work in process inventory. Completed products are finished goods. When the products are completed and transferred to the finished goods storeroom, the company removes their costs from Work in Process Inventory and assigns them to Finished Goods Inventory. As the goods are sold, the company transfers related costs from Finished Goods Inventory to Cost of Goods Sold. Exhibit 67: Product and cost flows Type of production Job shop Hospital, custom home builder, consulting firm Batch production Furniture manufacturer, winery Repetitive manufacturing Computer manufacturer, bicycle manufacturer Continuous flow processing Oil refinery, paint manufacturer Accounting system Job costing Type of product Customized Mostly job costing Several different products Mostly process costing (operations) Few new products Process costing Standardized Exhibit 68: Production activities and types of accounting systems 553 The accounting flow of costs follows the physical flow of the manufacturing process in most companies. Some companies use an alternative approach that we discuss in Chapter 20. In this chapter and the next, we assume costs follow the physical flow of products. In discussing product costing, we described how accountants and managers assign costs to products. Recall that products can be either goods or services, so this discussion applies to service and merchandising companies as well as to manufacturing companies. In Exhibit 68, we show how various companies choose different accounting systems, depending on their products. First, companies producing individual, unique products known as jobs use job costing (also called job order costing). Companies such as construction companies and consulting firms, produce jobs and use job costing. Second, some companies, like furniture manufacturers, produce batches of products. They produce all of the components of a single product (e.g. coffee tables) in one batch. They would then produce the components of another product (e.g. dining room sets) in a new batch. (Some university food service companies prepare meals this way.) Companies such as these use job costing methods to accumulate the cost of each batch. The last two types of production in Exhibit 68 use process costing methods described in Chapter 19, so we give just a brief overview here. Repetitive manufacturing lends itself to the use of automated equipment that minimizes the amount of manual material handling. Automobile assembly plants, bicycle assembly plants, and computer assembly plants use repetitive manufacturing. Continuous flow processing is the opposite of job shops. Companies using this process continuously mass-produce a single, homogeneous product. Companies use process cost systems in manufacturing paint, grinding flour, and refining oil. 554 An accounting perspective: Business insight Engineers for automobile companies in the United States believe that Japanese manufacturers can build cars for considerably less than their US counterparts. Many hospitals that thrived when health care costs were reimbursed faced troubled financial times when they had to compete with health maintenance organizations. These organizations required a better understanding of their costs. It is simple. Companies with competitors have to know and control their costs to be competitive. 18.7 Job costing A job cost system (job costing) accumulates costs incurred according to the individual jobs. Companies generally use job cost systems when they can identify separate products or when they produce goods to meet a customer's particular needs. Who uses job costing? Examples include home builders who design specific houses for each customer and accumulate the costs separately for each job, and caterers who accumulate the costs of each banquet separately. Consulting, law, and public accounting firms use job costing to measure the costs of serving each client. Motion pictures, printing, and other industries where unique jobs are produced use job costing. Hospitals also use job costing to determine the cost of each patient's care. Assume Creative Printers is a company run by a group of students who use desktop publishing to produce specialty books and instruction manuals. Creative Printers uses job costing. Creative Printers keeps track of the time and materials (mostly paper) used on each job. The company compares the cost of each job with the revenue received to be sure the jobs are profitable. Sometimes the company learns that certain jobs are too costly 555 considering the prices they can charge. For example, Creative Printers recently learned that cookbooks were not profitable. On the other hand, printing instruction manuals was quite profitable, so the company has focused more on the instruction manual market. To illustrate a job costing system, this section describes the transactions for the month of July for Creative Printers. On July 1, Creative Printers had these beginning inventories: Materials inventory Work in process inventory (Job No. 106: direct materials, $4,200;direct labor, $5,000; and overhead, $4,000) Finished goods inventory (Job No. 105) $20,000 13,200 5,500 Creative Printing had completed Job No. 105, a set of gardening books, but had not shipped them to the customer as of June 30. They had Job No. 106, a set of instruction manuals for computer software, in process at the beginning of July and completed it in July. They started Job No. 107, a travel guide for visitors to Southeast Asia, in July but had not completed it. The transactions and the journal entries to record these transactions follow. In Exhibit 69, we show the flow of costs through accounts and the beginning balances just presented. 556 Materials Inventory Beginning 20,000 inventory 25,000 (1) Ending 21,000 inventory Payroll Incurred 25,000 (2) 24,000 Summary Work in Process Inventory Job No. 106 Beginning inventory: Materials 4,200 Labor 5,000 Overhead 4,000 Total 13,200 Current Completed (5) period: (2) 9,000 29,400 Mats. (3) 4,000 Labor (4) 3,200 Ovrhd. 16,200 Total Ending inventory -0- Distributed (3) 25,000 Beginning 5,500 inventory Sold (6) 5,500 Completed Ending inventory Sold Overhead Indirect Applied to materials (2) 1,000 production (4) 16,000 Indirect (3) 5,000 labor Other overhead (7) 9,800 Overapplie 200 d balance Finished Goods Inventory (5) 29,400 29,400 Cost of Sold goods (6) 5,500 Work in Process Inventory Job No. 107 Beginning inventory -0Current period: (2) 14,000 Mats. (3) 16,000 Labor (4) 12,800 Ovrhd. 42,800 Total Ending inventory: Materials 14,000 Labor 16,000 Overhead 12,800 Total 42,800 Note: Numbers in parentheses refer to journal entries in the text. We show only the entries or parts of entries that deal with cost flows. Exhibit 69: Job cost flows-Creative Printers During July, Creative Printers purchased USD 25,000 of materials on account. This purchase included both direct materials, such as paper, and indirect materials, such as printing supplies and computer supplies. Materials inventory 25,00 0 Accounts payable To record purchase of materials. 25,000 557 During July, Creative Printers sent direct materials from the materials storeroom to jobs as follows: USD 9,000 to Job No. 106, and USD 14,000 to Job No. 107. The company also sent indirect materials of USD 1,000 to jobs. It charged indirect materials to overhead, not to each job, because the company does not keep track of how much indirect materials it uses on each job. (Manufacturing companies often use Manufacturing Overhead for the Overhead account. We generally use the Overhead account for both manufacturing and non-manufacturing companies in this chapter.) Each job has a separate Work in Process Inventory account to keep track of the particular job's costs. Work in process inventory - Job No. 106 (+A) 9,000 Work in process inventory - Job No. 107 (+A) 14,000 Overhead (or manufacturing overhead) (-SE) 1,000 Materials inventory (-A) To record direct and indirect materials sent from the storeroom to jobs. 24,000 See Exhibit 69, for the flow of materials from Materials Inventory to the Work in Process and Overhead accounts. Production workers keep track of the time spent on each job at Creative Printers. Based on that information, the company assigned production-related labor costs to jobs and to Overhead as follows: USD 4,000 to Job No. 106, USD 16,000 to Job No. 107, and indirect labor of USD 5,000 to Overhead. Work in process inventory - Job No. 106 4,000 Work in process inventory - Job No. 107 16,000 Overhead 5,000 Payroll summary 25,000 To distribute labor costs to jobs and overhead The entry to record payroll incurred during the accounting period (not shown) includes a debit to Payroll Summary and a credit to liability accounts to show payables for fringe benefits, such as health insurance, payroll taxes, and employee wages. In entry (3) the payroll summary is distributed to the jobs and overhead. Look at Exhibit 69, to see the assignment of labor costs to the Work in Process and Overhead accounts. The company assigns overhead to each job in the following manner: Creative Printers charges indirect materials to jobs based on each job's usage of materials; it charges indirect labor to jobs based on each job's usage of labor; 558 and it charges all other overhead to jobs on the basis of the machine-hours each job uses. By definition, overhead cannot be traced directly to jobs. Instead, we use cost drivers to assign overhead to jobs. A cost driver is a measure of activities, such as machine-hours, that is the cause of costs. To assign overhead to jobs, the cost driver should be the cause of the overhead costs, or at least be reasonably associated with the overhead costs. Just as automobile mileage is a good cost driver for measuring the cause of gasoline consumption, machine-hours is a measure of what causes energy costs. By assigning energy costs to jobs based on the number of machineminutes or hours the job uses, we have a pretty good idea of the energy costs required to produce the job. Creative Printers assigns overhead (such as machine maintenance) to jobs on a machine-hour basis. This makes good sense if machine maintenance is based on hours of usage, similar to having car maintenance done every 6,000 miles. Creative Printers also assigns overhead (such as building depreciation) to jobs on a machine-hour basis, which is less logical. However, Creative Printers' management does not believe the time and trouble of developing a more sophisticated method of assigning building depreciation to jobs is justified. For example, management did not believe better overhead allocation would sufficiently improve company profits to justify hiring another accountant to improve its overhead allocation method. Creative Printers allocates overhead to each job as follows: Materials basis: Overhead is assigned to a job at the rate of 5 percent of the cost of materials used on the job. Labor basis: Overhead is assigned at the rate of 25 percent of the cost of labor used on the job. Machine-hours basis: Overhead is assigned to a job at the rate of USD 2 per machine-hour used on the job. For now, assume these overhead rates are correct. Later in the chapter we discuss how companies derive these overhead rates. Creative Printers assigned overhead to Jobs 106 and 107 as follows: Job 106 Materials Labor cost $9,000 $4,000 Overhead assigned to Job 106: 5% x $9,000 $ 450 25% x $4,000 1,000 559 Machine-hours 875 hours Job 107 Materials Labor cost Machine-hours $14,000 $16,000 4,050 hours $2 x 875 hours Total overhead assigned to Job 106 Overhead assigned to Job 107: 5% x $14,000 25% x $16,000 $2 x 4,050 hours Total overhead assigned to Job 107 1,750 $3,200 $ 700 4,000 8,100 $12,800 Here is the journal entry to assign overhead to jobs: Work in process inventory - Job No. 106 Work in process inventory - Job No. 107 Overhead To record application of overhead to jobs. 3,200 12,800 16,000 See Exhibit 69 for the application of overhead to jobs. Job No. 106 was completed. Job 106 cost USD 29,400 for the total work done on the job, including costs in beginning Work in Process Inventory on July 1 and costs added during July. This entry records the completion of Job 106: Finished goods inventory (+A) Work in process inventory - Job No. 106 (-A) To record completed production for July. 29,400 29,400 See Exhibit 69 for the flow of costs from Work in Process Inventory to Finished Goods Inventory. Job No. 105 was sold on account in July for USD 9,000. These entries record the sale and the related cost of goods sold: Accounts receivable (+A) Sales (+SE) To record sales on account for July. Cost of goods sold (-SE) Finished goods inventory (-A) To record cost of goods sold in July (Job 105). 9,000 9,000 5,500 5,500 The company applied overhead to the jobs in entry (4) based on a predetermined overhead rate. Many of the actual overhead costs are not known until the end of the month or later. For example, the company would not receive its utility bill for July until sometime in August. In addition to the indirect materials and indirect labor recorded in entries (2) and (3), Creative Printers incurred these other overhead costs for July: Machinery repairs and maintenance Utilities, including energy costs to run machines Depreciation of building and machines $4,500 1,000 2,500 560 Other overhead Total overhead incurred in July other than indirect materials and indirect labor 1,800 $9,800 To prepare the journal entry, we debit the Overhead account for the actual costs. Then we credit Accounts Payable for the machinery repairs and maintenance, utilities, and other overhead. (We assume an outside contractor does the maintenance and repairs.) The amount is USD 7,300 (USD 4,500 + USD 1,000 + USD 1,800). And, finally we credit Accumulated Depreciation for USD 2,500. Here is the journal entry: Overhead Accounts payable Accumulated depreciation To record actual overhead costs for July. Overhead 1,000* 5,000* 9,800* 9,800 7,300 2,500 Cost of goods Sold 5,500* 16,000* Transfer from overhead (8) 200 Overapplied balance 200* Cost of goods sold for July 5,300 Transfer to cost of goods sold (8) 200 -0*These amounts are from Exhibit 69 Exhibit 70: Transfer overapplied overhead to cost of goods sold At this point, you may want to review the flow of costs through the inventory accounts in Exhibit 69. Note that Exhibit 69, shows only the inventory accounts, Payroll Summary, Overhead, and Cost of Goods Sold, not all of the accounts in the preceding entries. At the end of the month, the Overhead account contains overapplied overhead of USD 200 as shown in Exhibit 69. Companies generally transfer the balance of the Overhead account to Cost of Goods Sold at the end of the accounting period. Some companies do this monthly; others do it quarterly or annually. The journal entry to transfer Creative Printers' overhead balance to Cost of Goods Sold for the month of July is as follows: 561 Overhead (-SE) Cost of goods sold (+SE) To transfer the overhead balance to Cost of goods sold. 200 200 See the adjusted Cost of Goods Sold and the Overhead accounts in Exhibit 70. Why does the previous entry reduce the Cost of Goods Sold by USD 200? The overhead applied to the jobs was too highit was overapplied. Thus, the cost of jobs was overstated. Although those jobs are still in Work in Process or Finished Goods Inventory, companies usually adjust the Cost of Goods Sold account instead of each inventory account. Adjusting each inventory account for a small overhead adjustment is usually not a good use of managerial and accounting time and effort. All jobs appear in Cost of Goods Sold sooner or later, so companies simply adjust Cost of Goods Sold instead of the inventory accounts. In this book, we assume companies transfer overhead balances to Cost of Goods Sold. We leave the more complicated procedure of allocating overhead balances to inventory accounts to textbooks on cost accounting. Although Creative Printers had overapplied overhead, it could just as easily have had underapplied overhead. If overhead had been underapplied, the company would have debited Cost of Goods Sold and credited Overhead to transfer the overhead balance. Creative Printers Income statement For the month ended 2010 July 31 Sales Cost of goods sold: Finished goods inventory, July 1 $ 5,500 Cost of goods manufactured 29,400 Cost of goods available for sale $34,900 Less: Finished goods inventory, July 31 29,400 Cost of goods sold before transfer of overapplied overhead $ 5,500 Less: Overapplied overhead 200 Cost of goods sold Gross margin Selling and administrative expenses Net income $9,000 5,300 $3,700 3,000 $ 700 Exhibit 71: Creative Printers-Income statement Sometime in July or August, Creative Printers would collect its receivables in cash and pay its payables. The accounts payable for July amount to USD 32,300 (USD 25,000 for the materials purchase + USD 7,300 payables for overhead costs). The payroll liabilities amount to USD 25,000. Here are the entries recording Creative 562 Printers' payment of payables and payroll liabilities, and the collection of its receivables of USD 9,000: Accounts payable (-L) Cash (-A) Payroll liabilities (-L) Cash (-A) Cash (+A) Accounts receivable (-A) 32,300 32,300 25,000 25,000 9,000 9,000 Note that in Exhibit 71 we present the income statement for Creative Printers. Assume the selling and administrative expenses for July are USD 3,000. Managers would use the preceding cost information for several purposes: First, they would compare the actual costs of the job with expected costs, both as the work is being done and after the job has been completed. Later chapters discuss the role of managerial accounting in performance evaluation. Second, managers would assess the profitability of jobs. For example, Job 105 had revenue of USD 9,000 and costs of USD 5,500. Third, managers would compare actual overhead on the left side of the Overhead account, with the overhead applied to jobs on the right side. If the actual overhead exceeds the applied overhead, they may wish to learn why the actual overhead is so high. Also, they may ask the accountants to increase the overhead applied to jobs to give them a better idea of the cost of jobs. If the actual is less than the applied overhead, they may ask the accountants to reduce the overhead applied to jobs. 18.8 Predetermined overhead rates Creative Printers used predetermined rates to apply overhead to jobs. For example, they determined the 5 percent rate used to apply materials-related overhead to jobs before the month of July. Most manufacturing and service organizations use predetermined rates. To calculate a predetermined overhead rate, a company divides the estimated total overhead costs for a period by an expected level of activity. This activity could be total expected machine-hours, total expected direct labor-hours, or total expected direct labor cost for the period. Companies set predetermined overhead rates at the beginning of the year in which they will use them. Thus, the 563 rates for July may have been computed in November or December of the previous year. This formula computes a predetermined rate: Predetermined overhead rate= Estimated overhead costs Expected level of activity(such as machine hours) To demonstrate, assume the accountants at Creative Printers estimated overhead related to machine usage to be USD 120,000 for the year and estimated the machine usage for the year to be 60,000 machine-hours. Thus, the predetermined overhead rate would be USD 2 per hour, calculated as follows: Predetermined overhead rate= Estimated overhead costs Expected machinehours Predetermined overhead rate= USD120,000 = USD 2 per machine-hour 60,000 Some companies compute the overhead rate after the fact; that is, after the jobs are done and the overhead costs are known. The formula to calculate an actual overhead rate is: Actual overhead rate= Total actual overhead costs Total actual manufacturing activity Recall that we measure manufacturing activity using machine-hours, labor-hours, labor costs, materials costs, or some other cost driver. Reasons for using predetermined rates Most companies use predetermined overhead rates instead of actual overhead rates for the following reasons: A company usually does not incur overhead costs uniformly throughout the year. For example, heating costs are greater during winter months. However, allocating more overhead costs to a job produced in the winter compared to one produced in the summer may serve no useful purpose. Some overhead costs, like factory building depreciation, are fixed costs. If the volume of goods produced varies from month to month, the actual rate varies from month to month, even though the total cost is constant from month to month. The predetermined rate, on the other hand, is constant from month to month. Predetermined rates make it possible for companies to estimate job costs sooner. Using a predetermined rate, companies can assign overhead costs to production when they assign direct materials and direct labor costs. Without a 564 predetermined rate, companies do not know the costs of production until the end of the month or even later when bills arrive. For example, the electric bill for July will probably not arrive until August. If Creative Printers had used actual overhead, the company would not have determined the costs of its July work until August. It is better to have a good estimate of costs when doing the work instead of waiting a long time for only a slightly more accurate number. An accounting perspective: Uses of technology Recently, many high-tech companies have installed computerassisted methods of manufacturing, merchandising, or providing services. These new technologies have had a major impact on managerial accounting. For example, where robots and computerassisted manufacturing methods have replaced people, labor costs have shrunk from 20 percent to 40 percent of product costs to less than 5 percent. Accounting in traditional settings required much more work to keep track of labor costs than is necessary in current systems. On the other hand, in highly automated environments, accountants have had to become more sophisticated in finding the sources of overhead costs, which have become a larger part of total product cost. 18.8.1 Understanding the learning objectives Financial accounting refers to providing financial information primarily for external use. Managerial accounting information is intended for internal use to provide more detailed information to managers. In manufacturing companies, a product's cost is made up of three cost elements: direct materials costs, direct labor costs, and manufacturing overhead costs. Direct materials costs are clearly and easily traceable to the product. 565 Direct labor costs include only those labor costs clearly traceable to, or readily identifiable with, the finished product. Overhead costs (1) include all costs of making the product except direct materials and direct labor costs; (2) are costs that must be incurred in making the product but cannot or will not be traced directly to specific units produced; and (3) include a number of costs related to the production process, such as depreciation and maintenance on machines, supervisors' salaries, and utility costs for production facilities. Product costs are costs incurred in making products. These costs include costs of direct materials, direct labor, and overhead. Period costs are not assigned to units of a product but are related more closely to periods of time. For this reason, period costs are expensed (deducted from revenues) in the period in which they are incurred. The major difference between a merchandiser and a manufacturer is in the types of inventories carried. The statement of cost of goods manufactured supports the cost of goods sold figure on the income statement and has two important calculations: (1) Cost to manufacture, which includes the costs of all resources put into production during the period and (2) Cost of goods manufactured, which consists of the cost of all goods completed during the period. The manufacturer's balance sheet shows materials, work in process, and finished goods inventories separately. The accounting flow of costs follows the physical flow of the manufacturing process. Accountants record the flow of direct materials costs from Materials Inventory into Work in Process Inventory. They add the costs of direct labor and overhead to Work in Process Inventory. When the products are completed and transferred to the finished goods storeroom, accountants transfer their costs from Work in Process Inventory to Finished Goods Inventory. As the goods are sold, the related costs are transferred from Finished Goods Inventory to Cost of Goods Sold. 566 Companies producing individual, unique products known as jobs use job costing (also called job order costing). Companies such as furniture manufacturers produce batches of products and use job costing methods to accumulate the cost of each batch. Repetitive manufacturing companies (automobile assembly plants) and companies producing in a continuous flow (oil refineries) use process costing, discussed in the next chapter. A job cost system (job costing) is a cost system that accumulates costs incurred according to the individual jobs. Each job has its own Work in Process Inventory account. The formula for the predetermined overhead rate is: Predetermined overhead rate= Estimated overhead costs Expected level of activity(such as machine hours) Under variable costing, all the fixed manufacturing overhead costs are charged off (as period costs) during the period rather than being deferred and carried forward (as product costs) to the next period as part of inventory cost. Under absorption costing, all manufacturing costs are treated as product costs, including fixed manufacturing overhead. 18.9 Appendix: Variable versus absorption costing Under absorption costing, companies treat all manufacturing costs, including both fixed and variable manufacturing costs, as product costs. Under variable costing, companies treat only variable manufacturing costs as product costs. Total variable costs change proportionately with changes in total activity, while fixed costs do not change as activity levels change. These variable manufacturing costs are usually made up of direct materials, variable manufacturing overhead, and direct labor. (Direct labor can be a fixed cost if the company chooses not to decrease or increase its direct labor force as volume changes. Unless otherwise stated, we treat direct labor as a variable cost.) Variable costing (also known as direct costing) treats all fixed manufacturing costs as period costs to be charged to expense in the period received. The logic behind this expensing of fixed manufacturing costs is that the company would incur 567 such costs whether a plant was in production or idle. Therefore, these fixed costs do not specifically relate to the manufacture of products. Look at Exhibit 72, Bradley Company's income statements for May 2010 using absorption costing on top and variable costing on the bottom. Notice that Bradley's variable costing income statement carries the goods in inventory at USD 3.30 per unit rather than at the USD 3.90 full cost. The statement shows all variable costs as deductions from sales to disclose the contribution margin for the month. It classifies all fixed costs as period costs no matter what the source of the cost (manufacturing, selling, or administrative). Income statement under Absorption costing Bradley Company Income statement For the period ending 2010 May 31 Sales (9,000 units at $8) Cost of goods sold: Variable costs of production (10,000 units at $3.30) Fixed overhead costs Total costs of producing 10,000 units Less: Ending inventory (1,000 units at $3.90) Gross margin on sales Operating expenses: Selling expenses ($15,000 fixed plus 9,000 at $0.20 each) Administrative expenses Income before income taxes Contribution margin income statement under variable Bradley Company Income statement For the period ending 2010 May 31 Sales (9,000 units at $8) Variable costs: Variable production costs incurred (10,000 units at $3.30) Less: Ending inventory (1,000 units at $3.30) Manufacturing margin Variable selling expenses (9,000 units at $0.20) Contribution margin Fixed costs: Manufacturing overhead Selling expenses Administrative expenses Income before income taxes $72,000 $33,000 6,000 $39,000 3,900 35,100 $36,900 $16,800 12,000 28,800 $ 8,100 costing $72,000 $33,000 3,300 29,700 $42,300 1,800 $40,500 $ 6,000 15,000 12,000 33,000 $ 7,500 Exhibit 72: Comparative income statements In comparing the two income statements in Exhibit 72, notice the USD 600 difference in net income for the month and a USD 600 difference in ending inventory valuation, as shown in Exhibit 73, on the next page. These differences are due to the treatment of fixed manufacturing costs. Under absorption costing, each 568 unit in ending inventory carries USD 0.60 of fixed overhead cost as part of product cost. At the end of the month, Bradley has 1,000 units in inventory. Therefore, ending inventory under absorption costing includes USD 600 of fixed manufacturing overhead costs (USD 0.60 X 1,000 units) and is valued at USD 600 more than under variable costing. Under variable costing, companies charge off, or expense, all the fixed manufacturing costs during the period rather than deferring their expense and carrying them forward to the next period as part of inventory cost. Therefore, USD 6,000 of fixed manufacturing costs appear on the variable costing income statement as an expense, rather than USD 5,400 (USD 6,000 fixed overhead costs - USD 600 fixed manufacturing included in inventory) under absorption costing. Consequently, income before income taxes under variable costing is USD 600 less than under absorption costing because more costs are expensed during the period. Exhibit 73: Comparison of results under absorption and variable costing Finally, remember that the difference between the absorption costing and variable costing methods is solely in the treatment of fixed manufacturing overhead costs and income statement presentation. Both methods treat selling and administrative expenses as period costs. Regarding selling and administrative expenses, the only difference is their placement on the income statement and the segregation of variable and fixed selling and administrative expenses. Variable selling and administrative expenses are not part of product cost under either method. 569 As a general rule, relate the difference in net income under absorption costing and variable costing to the change in inventories. Assuming a relatively constant level of production, if inventories increase during the year, production exceeded sales and reported income before federal income taxes is less under variable costing than under absorption costing. Conversely, if inventories decreased, then sales exceeded production, and income before income taxes is larger under variable costing than under absorption costing. Variable costing is not currently acceptable for income measurement or inventory valuation in external financial statements that must comply with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) in the United States. However, managers often use variable costing for internal company reports. 18.10 Demonstration problem Demonstration problem A Good Earth Construction Company uses a job cost system to account for the houses it builds. Each house is a separate job. As of 2010 January 1, its records showed: Inventories: Materials and supplies Work in process (Job No. 212 and 213) Finished goods (Job No. 211) $ 48,000 103,200 120,000 The work in process inventory consists of two jobs: Job No. 212 213 Direct materials $18,000 20,400 $38,400 Direct Labor $24,000 19,200 $43,200 Construction Overhead* $12,000 9,600 $21,600 Total $ 54,000 49,200 $103,200 *Construction overhead is treated just like overhead in the text examples. Cost and sales data for 2010: Materials purchased on account, USD 198,000. Labor costs: Direct labor assigned to jobsJob No. 212, USD 48,000; Job No. 213, USD 96,000; Job No. 214 (started in 2010), USD 144,000; supervision and other indirect labor, USD 120,000. Materials used: Job No. 212, USD 31,200; Job No. 213, USD 57,600; Job No. 214, USD 96,000; and indirect materials, USD 4,800. 570 Overhead is assigned to jobs at the rate of 50 percent of the actual direct labor costs incurred on each job. Job No. 212 and 213 were completed. Jobs 211 and 212 were sold for USD 540,000. Construction overhead costs incurred, other than indirect materials and indirect labor: depreciation, USD 12,000; heat, light, power, and miscellaneous, USD 12,000. Prepare journal entries to record the preceding data and close any underapplied or overapplied overhead to Cost of Goods Sold. Demonstration problem B Companies use different bases in computing their predetermined overhead rates. From the following estimated data, compute the predetermined rate used by each company. Company A B 103,000 212,000 52,000 48,000 $650,000$735,000 $845,000$864,000 Machine-hours Direct labor-hours Direct labor cost Overhead costs C 125,000 39,000 $420,000 $750,000 Basis for predetermined overhead rate: Company A B C Basis Direct labor cost Direct labor-hours Machine-hours 18.11 Solution to demonstration problem Solution to demonstration problem A 1. 2. 3. Good Earth Construction Company General Journal Materials inventory Accounts payable To record materials purchased on account. 198,000 198,000 Work in process inventory - Job No. 212 Work in process inventory - Job No. 213 Work in process inventory - Job No. 214 Construction overhead Payroll summary To distribute labor costs to jobs and overhead. 48,000 96,000 144,000 120,000 Work in process inventory - Job No. 212 Work in process inventory - Job No. 213 31,200 57,600 571 408,000 Work in process inventory - Job No. 214 96,000 Construction overhead 4,800 Materials inventory 189,600 To record direct and indirect materials sent from storeroom to jobs. 4. Work in process inventory - Job No. 212 24,000 Work in process inventory - Job No. 213 48,000 Work in process inventory - Job No. 214 72,000 Construction overhead 144,000 To record overhead applied to jobs using the predetermined rate 50% of direct labor cost: Job No. 212, $24,000 (50% x $48,000); Job No. 213, $48,000 (50% x $96,000); and Job No. 214, $72,000 (50% x $144,000). 5. Finished goods inventory Work in process inventory - Job No. 212 Work in process inventory - Job No. 213 To record completion of Jobs 212 and 213. 408,000 157,200 250,800 The following amounts were computed by adding beginning Work in Process balances to the current month's debits to Work in Process for direct materials, direct labor, and construction overhead: Job No. 212: USD 157,200 (USD 54,000 + USD 31,200 + USD 48,000 + USD 24,000) Job No. 213: USD 250,800 (USD 49,200 + USD 57,600 + USD 96,000 + USD 48,000) USD 408,000 6. 7. 8 Accounts receivable Sales To record sales on account. Cost of goods sold Finished goods inventory To record cost of goods sold ($120,000 + $157,200 = $277,200). 540,000 Construction overhead Accumulated depreciation Various accounts (Accounts payable, accrued liabilities payable, cash, etc) To record various construction overhead costs incurred. 24,000 540,000 277,200 277,200 Cost of goods sold 4,8000 Construction overhead To close underapplied construction overhead (actual = $148,800, applied = $144,000). 12,000 12,000 4,800 Solution to demonstration problem B Company A: Predetermined overhead rate = USD845,000 =130 per cent of direct labor cost USD 650,000 Company B: 572 Predetermined overhead rate = USD864,000 =USD 18 per direct labor hour 48,000 hours Company C: Predetermined overhead rate = USD750,000 =USD6 per machinehour 125,000 hours 18.12 Key terms Absorption costing (Appendix) A concept of costing under which all manufacturing costs, including both fixed and variable manufacturing costs, are accounted for as product costs. Actual overhead rate Total actual manufacturing overhead divided by total actual manufacturing activity. Administrative costs Costs of managing the organization, including the costs of top administrative functions and various staff departments such as accounting, data processing, and personnel. Cost A financial measure of the resources used or given up to achieve a stated purpose. Cost driver Activity or transaction that causes costs to be incurred. Machinehours can be a cost driver for costs of energy to run machines, for example. Cost of goods manufactured Consists of the total costs of all goods completed during the period; includes cost to manufacture plus beginning work in process inventory minus ending work in process inventory Cost of goods sold Cost of goods manufactured plus the beginning finished goods inventory minus the ending finished goods inventory. Cost to manufacture Includes the direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead incurred during the period. Direct labor Labor costs of all employees actually working on materials to convert them to finished goods. Direct labor costs are directly traced to particular products in contrast to indirect labor costs. Direct materials Materials that are used only in making the product and are clearly and easily traceable to a particular product. Finished goods Completed manufactured products ready to be sold. Finished Goods Inventory is the title of an inventory account maintained for such products. Indirect labor The cost of labor that cannot, or will not for practical reasons, be traced to the goods being produced or the services being provided. Indirect materials Materials used in making a product that cannot, or will not for practical reasons, be traced directly to particular products. Job cost system (job costing) A manufacturing cost system that accumulates costs incurred to produce a product according to individual jobs, such as a building, a consulting job, or a batch of 100 computer desks. 573 Managerial accounting Managerial accounting information is intended for internal use. The purpose is to generate information managers can use to make good decisions. Manufacturing overhead All manufacturing costs except for those costs accounted for as direct materials and direct labor. Materials Unprocessed items used in the manufacturing process. Overapplied (overabsorbed) overhead The amount by which the overhead applied to production exceeds the actual overhead costs incurred in that same period. Overhead All costs of making goods or providing services except for those costs classified as direct materials and direct labor. See manufacturing overhead for overhead in manufacturing companies. Period costs Costs related more closely to periods of time than to products produced. Period costs cannot be traced directly to the manufacture of a specific product; they are expensed in the period in which they are incurred. Predetermined overhead rate Calculated by dividing estimated total overhead costs for a period by the expected level of activity, such as total expected machine-hours or total expected direct labor-hours for the period. Product costs Costs a company assigns to units produced. In manufacturing companies, these costs are direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. In service companies that have no materials, these costs are direct labor and overhead. Selling costs Costs incurred to obtain customer orders and distribute the finished product to the customer. Statement of cost of goods manufactured An accounting report showing the cost to manufacture and the cost of goods manufactured. Underapplied (underabsorbed) overhead The amount by which actual overhead costs incurred in a period exceed the overhead applied to