Hofstede's $(1980)$ initial set of four dimensions by which to conceptualize and identify cross$-$cultural differences were applied in a

subsequent study by Markus and Kitayama $(1991)$ who found that while people in North America and Western Europe are more

likely to value being unique and self$-$assertion people in Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe are more likely to value belonging and

self$-$restraint. This exemplifies:

Individualism versus Collectivism

Power Distance

Uncertainty Avoidance

Masculinity

Long$-$ Versus Short$-$Term Orientation