I want to check my answers if they are thorough and accurate. Thank you!!

Question 3)

Many consider William James a father or even the father of psychology. One possible reason for his status is that he moved psychology away from philosophy. But he retained elements of philosophy in his perspective on psychology.

1 What elements of philosophy were part of James' world view?

2 Is psychology today distinctly different from philosophy?

3 Is there still a role for phenomenology in psychology?

MY ANSWER:

Question 3

William James can be considered the "father of modern psychology" due to his commitment to examining the mind from a scientific perspective. He strongly emphasized empirical research methods, which laid the foundation for contemporary psychological theories and practices. He believed that psychology should be examined in objective ways rather than rather than subjective interpretations alone.

William James was a philosopher, and his philosophical views influenced his work in psychology. Some key philosophical elements of James' worldview include pragmatism, radical empiricism, and pluralism. James was a pluralist, believing that reality comprises many parts rather than a single unified substance. This view is reflected in his view of the mind, which he saw as a complex system composed of many elements. He was also an empiricist and believed that all knowledge comes from experience. His focus on phenomenology, the study of subjective experience, reflects this view. James was influenced by Darwin's idea that mental traits are evolved adaptations, leading to his functionalist approach to psychology. He was a pragmatist who believed that the truth of an idea is determined by its usefulness. This view is reflected in his work in psychology, where he emphasized the importance of empirical evidence and practical applications.

The pragmatist element distinguishes his approach and highlights his contribution to psychology. The distinctly differentiating element between psychology and philosophy is that psychology focuses more on empirical research and scientific methods, whereas philosophy focuses more on conceptual analysis. The slight overlap between Psychology and philosophy is the theoretical questioning of the nature of consciousness and the relationship between mind and body.

Today, phenomenology can still be a helpful method to study psychological phenomena and the development of new interventions for psychological disorders. A recent study by Peppard examined how people who suffer from chronic pain frequently see it as an oppressive presence that limits the ability to work, sleep, and enjoy relationships. The research found that people with chronic pain frequently adopt coping mechanisms, such as distraction, relaxation methods, and social support, to deal with the pain. This study contributes to understanding how subjective perceptions of chronic pain impact people's daily lives. It also suggests that using phenomenology to help people deal with their experiences healthily might lead to developing more effective treatments for chronic pain.

Question 4

Trace the history of studies investigating how the brain works. Provide brief descriptions of the following historical views of localization of function in the brain:

Phrenology

Lesion and stroke studies

Electrical stimulation of the brain

Split-brain studies.

How did each of these methodologies contribute to our current understanding of how the brain works?

MY ANSWER:

Question 4

Franz Gall and Johann Spurzheim founded phrenology, a pseudo-science that attempted to map the mind onto the brain. Phrenologists believed that a person's personality and character could be anticipated based on the form of their head. They also believed that different brain areas governed different mental activities. It did help in giving a broad concept of brain measurement. According to the Week 4 lecture, phrenology did help produce the "mental muscle "concept that persists today. Then came Pierre Flourens, who conducted tests on animals using the oblation method, where he destroyed part of the brain to determine where specific brain functions are located. His research was contradictory to phrenology.

Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke were the first to practice lesion and stroke research to look at the localization of function in the brain. They used clinical methods to study stroke patients to understand communication functions. They correlated the brain area affected to determine function ability after stroke. Research on lesions and strokes has considerably improved our understanding of how the brain works. For instance, researchers have used lesion and stroke examinations to pinpoint the brain areas responsible for speech, vision, and movement. Broca noted that damage to a specific area of the left frontal lobe, now known as Broca's area, results in decreased speech production. Wernicke discovered that injury to a specific area of the left temporal lobe, now known as Wernicke's area, impairs the ability to understand language.

Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig provided the earliest conclusive evidence of the localization of function in the brain. They observed that different areas of the cerebral cortex were stimulated in different ways in the brains, which caused different motor actions to be produced, thus discovering the motor cortex Our understanding of the brain has significantly advanced due to the work done by Fritsch and Hitzig. They proved that particular brain areas are responsible for particular functions and that these functions can be transferred to the cerebral cortex. Their findings are now confirmed by the use if fMRI and other brain scanning devices.

Sperry and Gazzaniga's split-brain studies provided compelling evidence that the brain is responsible for consciousness. According to Sperry and Gazzaniga's research, each brain hemisphere has its memories and experiences and can function independently. This suggests that consciousness is a result of the interaction of the brain's two hemispheres rather than being a unitary phenomenon. The research of Sperry and Gazzaniga has significantly influenced how we think about the brain and consciousness. It has demonstrated that the brain is a sophisticated organ serving various purposes and that consciousness results from interacting with these processes.

Question 5

Descartes thought animals were "flesh and blood machines" that operated purely on instinct and did not have a soul. However, he advocated for animal research to better understand human physiology. Beach argued that the study of animal behavior was a valid way to understand human behavior. Are there sufficient similarities between human and animal behavior to warrant the study of comparative psychology?

MY ANSWER:

Question 5

There are sufficient similarities between human and animal behavior to warrant the study of comparative psychology. Comparative psychology is the study of behavior across species, and it has been shown that humans and animals share many of the same basic behaviors, such as eating, sleeping, mating, and defending themselves. Additionally, humans and animals exhibit complex behaviors like learning, problem-solving, and social interaction. For instance, last semester, I took a psychology of learning course, and almost all the studies relied on animal studies to conclude evidence and the relationship between stimulus and outcome/behavior. The findings are then used to understand better our human learning, social behavior, and developmental process.

Descartes believed animals were "flesh and blood machines" that only responded to instinct. He rejected the idea that animals had souls or could feel pain or suffering. He also believed that animals and humans shared many physiological traits, thus being suitable test subjects to help provide insight into how the human body functions. He believed that animals and humans shared many physiological traits, and studying animals could help understand the human body.

Frank A. Beach, a comparative psychologist, claims that studies of animal behavior can help us comprehend human behavior. Like Descartes, He thought studying animal behavior could provide light on the evolution and development of human behavior because people and animals exhibit many of the same fundamental tendencies. Beach also believed that valuing the concept of instinct was beneficial for understanding specific types of behavior. He defines instinct as a "genetically fixed pattern of behavior that is relatively unmodifiable by learning" (Beach, 1955). According to him, instincts play a role in many human behaviors, such as aggression, parenting, and sexual activity, and they are essential for survival and reproduction. He contends that despite its historical roots and lack of scientific support, the idea of instinct has remained important in the study of behavior because it offers a framework for comprehending innate behaviors. He contends that understanding animal instincts is important for understanding the cellular foundations of behavior. As many of our activities are similarly innate in the root, this can help us comprehend animal and human behavior. Although instinct is still debatable, it is generally accepted that instincts exist and influence how people behave.

References

Beach, F. A. (Nov.1955). The descent of instinct. Psychological Review, 62(6), 401-410.https://doi.org/10.1037/h0049138

Brown, R. E. (2020). Donald O. Hebb and the organization of behavior: 17years in the writing. Molecular Brain, 13(1).

https://doi.org/10.1186/s13041-020-00567-8

Hebb, D. O. (1974a). What psychology is about? American Psychologist, 29(2), 71-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0035838

Nir, Y., & Tononi, G. (2010). Dreaming and the brain: From phenomenology to neurophysiology. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(2), 88-100.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.12.001

Peppard, S. (June, 2022). The Lived Experience of Military Women with Chronic Pain: A Phenomenological Study.

https://doi.org/10.22371/07.2021.025

Sperry, R. W. (1968). Hemisphere deconnection and unity in conscious awareness. American Psychologist, 23(10), 723-733.

https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026839

Taylor, E. (1999). William James and Sigmund Freud: "The future of psychology belongs to your work." Psychological Science, 10(6), 465-469.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00190

Weisberg, J. The Hard Problem of Consciousness. Internet encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved on Septmebr 25, 2023.https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/#:~:text=The%20hard%20problem%20of%20consciousness%20is%20the%20problem%20of%20explaining,directly%20appear%20to%20the%20subject

Van Boxtel, J. J., Tsuchiya, N., & Koch, C. (2010). Consciousness and attention: On sufficiency and necessity. Frontiers in Psychology.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00217