INTRODUCTION TO DOCUMENTS 6 AND 7 Before the trial began, Robinson contacted Truman Gibson, an aide to Secretary of War Henry Stimson who was sympathetic to civil rights. Robinson suspected the reason the bus driver asked him to move back was because the woman he sat next to was very fair skinned-she looked white. He asked Gibson about contacting the NAACP or African-American newspapers, and though Robinson did not want to cause trouble for the Army, he strongly believed that he had been un- fairly treated. Had Robinson not been a star college athlete in 1944, and had he not contacted Gibson, one has to wonder how his case would have turned out. A few years later, he became known to the public as Jackie Robinson, the man who integrated Major League Baseball. In the United States, people of Japanese ancestry faced racial discrimination of a different sort. Asians had been coming to the West Coast in substantial numbers since after the Civil War, though the Chinese were banned by the Exclusion Act of 1882. Western agriculture demanded labor, and Japanese immigrants filled in some of the gap left by the excluded Chinese. Anti- Asian racism forced a slowdown in Japanese emigration with the 1907 "Gentleman's Agreement" between Japan and the United States, and it virtually ceased under Immigration Act of 1924. Anti-miscegenation laws assured that Japanese-American children would not marry native-born Americans. Thus, when Imperial Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor in late 1941, few Japanese nationals had come to America in thirty years, so that two-thirds of West Coast Japanese were native English speakers and American citizens by birth. Yet the surprise attack on the American fleet in Hawaii raised questions about their loyalty. Within weeks of American entry into the war, General John DeWitt-commanding general of the Western Defense Command-convinced President Roosevelt that Japanese Americans posed a dire threat to the security of the West Coast. In response, on February 19, 1942, Roosevelt author rized the War Department to evacuate almost 112,000 people of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast, mostly Americans, but now removed to internment camps in the interior west. The order was based upon the notion that per Page 231 d a clear and present threat to American security as potential sa 5. THE COURT MARTIAL OF JACKIE... it . In his letter to General DeWitt, who was in end ccung the evacuation, Secretary ofIn the United States, people of Japanese ancestry faced racial discrimination of a different sort. Asians had been coming to the West Coast in substantial numbers since after the Civil War, though the Chinese were banned by the Exclusion Act of 1882. Western agriculture demanded labor, and Japanese immigrants filled in some of the gap left by the excluded Chinese. Anti- Asian racism forced a slowdown in Japanese emigration with the 1907 "Gentleman's Agreement" between Japan and the United States, and it virtually ceased under Immigration Act of 1924. Anti-miscegenation laws assured that Japanese-American children would not marry native-born Americans. Thus, when Imperial Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor in late 1941, few Japanese nationals had come to America in thirty years, so that two-thirds of West Coast Japanese were native English speakers and American citizens by birth. Yet the surprise attack on the American fleet in Hawaii raised questions about their loyalty. Within weeks of American entry into the war, General John DeWitt-commanding general of the Western Defense Command-convinced President Roosevelt that Japanese Americans posed a dire threat to the security of the West Coast. In response, on February 19, 1942, Roosevelt author rized the War Department to evacuate almost 112,000 people of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast, mostly Americans, but now removed to internment camps in the interior west. The order was based upon the notion that persons of Japanese ancestry presented a clear and present threat to American security as potential saboteurs of the American war effort. In his letter to General DeWitt, who was in charge of effecting the evacuation, Secretary of War Stimson asked him to not disturb, for the time being at least, Italian aliens and person of Italian lineage except where they are, in your judgment, undesirable or constitute a definite danger to the per- formance of your mission to defend the West Coast. I ask that you take this action in respect to Italians for the reason that I consider such persons to be potentially less danger- ous, as a whole, than those of other enemy nationalities. Because of the size of the Italianpopulation and the number of troops and facilities which would have to be employed to deal with them, their inclusion in the general plan would greatly overtax our strength.* Document 6 is a local evacuation order from Oakland, California, authored by General Dewitt, which informs Japanese Americans how to proceed. Document 7 is DeWitt's assessment of the entire operation one year later, after the most intense phase of panic regarding Japanese Americans had passed. In it, he argues why such a dramatic action was necessary. 6. EVACUATION ORDER DEVELOPMENT AND EXECUTION OF EVACUATION PLAN 99 100 JAPANESE EVACUATION FROM THE WEST COAST WESTERN DEFENSE COMMAND AND FOURTH ARMY THE FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS MUST BE OBSERVED: WARTIME CIVIL CONTROL ADMINISTRATION Presidio of San Francisco, California 1. A responsible member of each family, preferably the head of the family, or the person in whose name most of the property is held, and each individual INSTRUCTIONS living alone, will report to the Civil Control Station to receive further in- structions. This must be done between 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M. on Friday, TO ALLAPERSONS OF May 1, 1942, or between 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M. on Saturday, May 2, 1942. 2. Evacuees must carry with them on departure for the Assembly Center, JAPANESE the following property: (a) Bedding and linens (no mattress) for each member of the family; (b) Toilet articles for each member of the family; clothing of the family:6. EVACUATION ORDER DEVELOPMENT AND EXECUTION OF EVACUATION PLAN 99 100 JAPANESE EVACUATION FROM THE WEST COAST WESTERN DEFENSE COMMAND AND FOURTH ARMY WARTIME CIVIL CONTROL ADMINISTRATION THE FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS MUST BE OBSERVED: Presidio of San Francisco, California 1. A responsible member of each family, preferably the head of the family, or the person in whose name most of the property is held, and each individual INSTRUCTIONS living alone, will report to the Civil Control Station to receive further in- structions. This must be done between 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M. on Friday, TO ALL PERSONS OF May 1, 1942, or between 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M. on Saturday, May 2, 1942. 2. Evacuees must carry with them on departure for the Assembly Center, JAPANESE the following property: (a) Bedding and linens (no mattress) for each member of the family; (b) Toilet articles for each member of the family; ANCESTRY (c) Extra clothing for each member of the family; LIVING IN THE FOLLOWING AREA: (d) Sufficient knives, forks, spoons, plates, bowls and cups for each mem- All of that portion of the County of Alameda, State of California, within ber of the family; that boundary beginning at the point at which the southerly limits of (e) Essential personal effects for each member of the family. the City of Berkeley meet San Francisco Bay; thence easterly and following All items carried will be securely packaged, tied and plainly marked with the southerly limits of said city to College Avenue; thence southerly on the name of the owner and numbered in accordance with instructions obtained College Avenue to Broadway; thence southerly on Broadway to the south- at the Civil Control Station. The size and number of packages is limited to erly limits of the City of Oakland; thence following the limits of said that which can be carried by the individual or family group. city westerly and northerly, and following the shoreline of San Francisco Bay to the point of beginning. 3. No pets of any kind will be permitted. Pursuant to the provisions of Civilian Exclusion Order No. 27, this Head- 4. No personal items and no household goods will be shipped to the As- quarters, dated April 30, 1942, all persons of Japanese ancestry, both alien and sembly Center. non-alien, will be evacuated from the above area by 12 o'clock noon, P.W.T., 5. The United States Government through its agencies will provide for Thursday May 7, 1942. the storage at the sole risk of the owner of the more substantial household No Japanese person living in the above area will be permitted to change items, such as iceboxes, washing machines, pianos and other heavy furniture. residence after 12 o'clock noon, P.W.T., Thursday, April 30, 1942, without Cooking utensils and other small items will be accepted for storage if crated, obtaining special permission from the representative of the Commanding Gen- packed and plainly marked with the name and address of the owner. Only one eral, Northern California Sector, at the Civil Control Station located at: name and address will be used by a given family. 530 Eighteenth Street, 6. Each family, and individual living alone will be furnished transportation OfMand, California. to the Assembly Center or will be authorized to travel by private automobile in a supervised group. All instructions pertaining to the movement will be ob- Such permits will only be granted for the purpose of uniting members of a tained at the Civil Control Station. family, or in cases of grave emergency. The Civil Control Station is equipped to assist the Japanese population Go to the Civil Control Station between the hours of 8:00 A. M. and affected by this evacuation in the following ways: 5:00 P. M., Friday, May 1, 1942, or between the hours of 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M, Saturday, May 2, 1942, to receiveReader structuus. AHIS must De uune between 6:vu n. m, and >:ov r. m. on rnday, TO ALL PERSONS OF May 1, 1942, or between 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M. on Saturday, May 2, 1942. 2. Evacuees must carry with them on departure for the Assembly Center, JAPANESE the following property: (a) Bedding and linens (no mattress) for each member of the family; ANCESTRY (b) Toilet articles for each member of the family; (c) Extra clothing for each member of the family; LIVING IN THE FOLLOWING AREA: (d) Sufficient knives, forks, spoons, plates, bowls and cups for each mem- All of that portion of the County of Alameda, State of California, within ber of the family; that boundary beginning at the point at which the southerly limits of (e) Essential personal effects for each member of the family. the City of Berkeley meet San Francisco Bay; thence easterly and following the southerly limits of said city to College Avenue; thence southerly on All items carried will be securely packaged, tied and plainly marked with College Avenue to Broadway; thence southerly on Broadway to the south- the name of the owner and numbered in accordance with instructions obtained erly limits of the City of Oakland; thence following the limits of said at the Civil Control Station. The size and number of packages is limited to city westerly and northerly, and following the shoreline of San Francisco that which can be carried by the individual or family group. Bay to the point of beginning. 3. No pets of any kind will be permitted. Pursuant to the provisions of Civilian Exclusion Order No. 27, this Head- No personal items and no household goods will be shipped to the As- quarters, dated April 30, 1942, all persons of Japanese ancestry, both alien and sembly Center. non-alien, will be evacuated from the above area by 12 o'clock noon, P.W.T., 5. The United States Government through its agencies will provide for Thursday May 7, 1942. the storage at the sole risk of the owner of the more substantial household No Japanese person living in the above area will be permitted to change items, such as iceboxes, washing machines, pianos and other heavy furniture. residence after 12 o'clock noon, P.W.T., Thursday, April 30, 1942, without Cooking utensils and other small items will be accepted for storage if crated, obtaining special permission from the representative of the Commanding Gen- packed and plainly marked with the name and address of the owner. Only one eral, Northern California Sector, at the Civil Control Station located at: name and address will be used by a given family. 530 Eighteenth Street, 6. Each family, and individual living alone will be furnished transportation Oakland, California. to the Assembly Center or will be authorized to travel by private automobile in a supervised group. All instructions pertaining to the movement will be ob- Such permits will only be granted for the purpose of uniting members of a trained at the Civil Control Station. family, or in cases of grave emergency. The Civil Control Station is equipped to assist the Japanese population Go to the Civil Control Station between the hours of 8:00 A. M. and affected by this evacuation in the following ways: 5:00 P. M., Friday, May 1, 1942, or between the hours of 1. Give advice and instructions on the evacuation. 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M., Saturday, May 2, 1942, to receive further instructions. 2. Provide services with respect to the management, leasing, sale, storage J. L. DEWITT or other disposition of most kinds of property, such as real estate, business and Lieutenant General, U. S. Army professional equipment, household goods, boats, automobiles and livestock. Commanding 3. Provide temporary residence elsewhere for all Japanese in family groups. April 30, 1942 4. Transport persons and a limited amount of clothing and equipment to See Civilian Exclusion Order No. 27. their new residence. Image 11.3: Evacuation Instructions, 1942 Source: Final Report. Japanese Evacuation from the West Coast 1942 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1943).7. GENERAL DEWITT, FINAL REPORT ON THE EVACUATION OF JAPANESE (1943) Headquarters Western Defense Command and then had returned to the United States. Emperor and Fourth Army worshipping ceremonies were commonly held and Office of the Commanding General millions of dollars had flowed into the Japanese im- Presidio of San Francisco, California perial war chest from the contributions freely made June 5, 1943 by Japanese here. The continued presence of a large, unassimilated, tightly knit racial group, bound to an To: Chief of Staff, United States Army, War Department, enemy nation by strong ties of race, culture, custom Washington, D.C. and religion along a frontier vulnerable to attack . . . The evacuation was impelled by military ne- constituted a menace which had to be dealt with. cessity. The security of the Pacific Coast continues to Their loyalties were unknown and time was of the es- require the exclusion of Japanese from the area now sence. The evident aspirations of the enemy embold- prohibited to them and will so continue as long as ened by his recent successes made it worse than folly that military necessity exists. The surprise attack at to have left any stone unturned in the building up of Pearl Harbor by the enemy crippled a major portion our defenses. It is better to have had this protection of the Pacific Fleet and exposed the West Coast to and not to have needed it than to have needed it and an attack which could not have been substantially not to have had it-as we have learned to our sorrow. impeded by defensive fleet operations. More than . . On February 14, 1942, I recommended to 115,000 persons of Japanese ancestry resided along the War Department that the military security of the the coast and were significantly concentrated near Pacific Coast required the establishment of broad sensitive installations essential to the civil control anti-sabotage and counter-espionageader require the exclusion of Japanese from the area now sence. The evident aspirations of the enemy embold- prohibited to them and will so continue as long as ened by his recent successes made it worse than folly that military necessity exists. The surprise attack at to have left any stone unturned in the building up of Pearl Harbor by the enemy crippled a major portion our defenses. It is better to have had this protection of the Pacific Fleet and exposed the West Coast to and not to have needed it than to have needed it and an attack which could not have been substantially not to have had it-as we have learned to our sorrow. impeded by defensive fleet operations. More than . . On February 14, 1942, I recommended to 115,000 persons of Japanese ancestry resided along the War Department that the military security of the the coast and were significantly concentrated near Pacific Coast required the establishment of broad many highly sensitive installations essential to the civil control, anti-sabotage and counter-espionage war effort. Intelligence services records reflected the measures, including the evacuation therefrom of existence of hundreds of Japanese organizations in all persons of Japanese ancestry. In recognition of California, Washington, Oregon and Arizona which, this situation, the President issued Executive Order prior to December 7, 1941, were actively engaged in 9055 on February 19, 1942, authorizing the accom- advancing Japanese war aims. These records also dis- plishment of these and any other necessary security closed that thousands of American-born Japanese had measures. gone to Japan to receive their education and indoc- J. L. DeWitt, Lieutenant General, trination there and had become rabidly pro-Japanese U.S. Army, Commanding.58. BASEBALL GAME AT MANZANAR RELOCATION CENTER, CALIFORNIA (1943) ANSEL ADAMS 234 Goader Image 11.4: Ansel Adams, Baseball game at Manzanar Relocation Center, California Baseball was a particularly favorite pastime at several of the Japanese American internment camps, with regular league schedules and organized teams. Source: Courtesy Manzanar War Relocation Center Photographs. Library of Congress. 234 Go\feager Cathal Church Image 11.5: Catholic Church, Manzanar (1943) Japanese Americans quickly tried to establish some sense of normalcy in the internment camps, including freedom of worship. Here barracks were transformed into a Catholic Church. Source: Courtesy Manzanar War Relocation Center Photographs, Library of Congress.10. ROY TAKENO READING PAPER, MANZANAR RELOCATION CENTER, CALIFORNIA (1943) ANSEL ADAMS OFFICE of REPORTS FREE PRESS 236 Goder Image 11.6: Roy Takeno Reading Paper (1943) These photographs highlight the way Japanese Americans internees sought to create dignity and stability even when their rights had been suspended. Note that Adams highlights freedom of press and religion in his images. Source: Courtesy Manzanar War Relocation Center Photographs, Library of Congress. 236 Go