Kleinfeld (2020), identified the four major risk factors for election violence. According to Dr. White, the most significant of these factors is: Question 12 options: 1) a highly competitive election that could shift the balance of power 2) partisan division based on identity 3) electoral rules that enable winning by exploiting identity cleavages 4) weak institutional constraints on violence, particularly security-sector bias toward one group leading perpetrators to believe they will not be held accountable for violence. 5) all of the above