Metaphor: A Multifaceted Literary Device used by Morgan and Weick to Describe Organizations Robert B. Van Engen Regent University The research in this paper gives a description of a metaphor as multifaceted. The metaphor's many sides create complexity, give clarity, provide validity, and develop creativity. Metaphor is a valuable tool that gives dimension to language. The depth affects the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of human existence. Metaphor has value as a descriptive tool, also. It adds color and expands language. Morgan and Weick described metaphor as important and beneficial in detailing organizations and defining organizing theories. The size of the organization limits metaphorical practice. Organizational culture illustrated by metaphor aids organizational members in understanding the organization's history. Metaphor is a multifaceted literary device that assists in illustrating complexity and in expressing clarity. Metaphor helps to compare the value of variables and to expose creativity. Using metaphor enhances communication and, according to Morgan (1997) and Weick (1979), is a valuable tool for leaders/followers in organizations. Morgan listed several metaphors for organizations, and this paper identified two: organizations as brains and as psychic prisons. Weick presented his metaphorical concepts through a psychological format. The two authors outlined the complexity, the lucidity, the validity, and the creativity that imagery conveys about organizations. This paper examined the differences and similarities between Morgan's and Weick's concepts of metaphor and the comprehensive nature that metaphor plays between leaders/followers within organizations. The study of metaphor is important to small (a family) and/or large (Microsoft) organizations. The benefit from this imagery connects people to the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual dimensions of existence. Metaphor adds color to these elements and develops memories, stories, and relationships that advance the organizational culture which in turn, if maintained and balanced, creates quality leaders/followers and organizations. Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 40 Metaphor: Many Sides Metaphors are multifaceted and provide an imaginative way of communicating concepts that are complex, unclear, valuable, or creative. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defined metaphor as \"a figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison.\" Metaphor requires the use of imagination, and imaginations can run wild. As indicated by Weick (2005), though, this is needed in order to picture, predict, and then prevent events like 9/11. The rhetoric was limited because few could imagine airplanes being used as weapons. However, caution needs to be attached in the use of metaphor. When comparing ideas, the metaphors must be relevant to the culture or the environment of the organization for the greatest impression. \"Metaphors and analogies must be selected with some sensitivity to how those being described would feel and how intended audiences will respond\" (Patton, 2002, p. 504). So, metaphors must be adapted because an obsolete metaphor may introduce more complexity. Therefore, the context is very important in the application of this literary device. Complexity If used appropriately, metaphors clarify complex ideas. Davidson (1978) described metaphors as \"relatively simple\" or \"relatively complex,\" which account for its intricacy (p. 30). Oswick and Montgomery (1999) found that metaphors could \"mislead and hence obscure\" (p. 521). Nonetheless, metaphors clearly provide a way to simplify the complex. Leder (2007) explained the power that imagery plays in elucidating concepts. \"Using a metaphor is a bit like carrying a verbal PowerPointespecially when it's used to simplify an increasingly complex business. The words and pictures combine to make your lesson concrete\" (para. 3). The complexities metaphors create promote further reflection on ideas. This reflection leads to additional questioning so that theories or concepts become clear, particularly concerning organizations. Oswick and Montgomery discovered this in researching the use of metaphor in organizations: For instance, for some of the team leaders the metaphor instantaneously appeared in response to the question and seemed to intuitively fit (e.g. the organisation [sic] is like an elephant) but the reasons why it was so apt were not always immediately clear to the respondent and only after further reflection did the similarities emerge (i.e. the \"ground\" shifted from being unconscious and tacit to conscious and articulated). (p. 519) Complexity can be made less confusing with the use of metaphor. Gaddefors (2007) concurred, that \"it [the use of metaphor] facilitates learning particularly when one is working under pressure to communicate something complex and difficult\" (p. 175). Morgan (1997) and Weick (1979) agreed that use of metaphor is complex especially for organizations. Morgan considered it one of the challenges in using metaphor. Metaphors allow leaders to communicate confusing ideas to subordinates as well as helping shape vision and organizational life. These two areas of organizations can be complicated, so it calls for leaders/followers to understand the comparison in order to advance organizations into the future. Still, challenges exist in overcoming complexity and the proper use of metaphor. Morgan explained it is a matter of seeing and thinking differently. \"Think 'structure' and you'll see structure. Think 'culture' and you'll see all kinds of culture\" (p. 348). Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 41 Morgan's (1997) metaphor of organizations as brains expanded this concept. The brain is a complex organ that generates thoughts, memories, and ideas. It is an information storage system that provides data to the body. The brain allows three dimensional views of the world. Morgan described this aspect as \"holographic\" (p. 76). He interpreted Dennett's research to suggest \"that what we see and experience in the brain as a highly ordered stream of consciousness is really the result of a more chaotic process where multiple possibilities...are generated...\" (p. 77). The brain is complex and is a good illustration for describing organizations. The organization has multiple possibilities and processes that information to make decisions about its culture, its vision, and its relationships. Clearly, like the human brain, organizations have a central leader or team of leaders that develops and explains reality inside and outside the organization. The brain metaphor is used in the language of the organization. One example is \"brainstorming\" which is described as \"a conference technique of solving specific problems, amassing information, stimulating creative thinking, developing new ideas, etc., by unrestrained and spontaneous participation in discussion\" (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language). The amassing of multiple perspectives creates complexity in the organization, which appears to be a chaotic process. However, brainstorming is crucial in surfacing new ideas and multiple viewpoints for the organization. Weick's concepts (1979) corroborated Morgan's ideas (1997) of complexity. \"Organizations deal with streams of materials, people, money, time, solutions, problems, and choices. Streams can be a useful metaphor to portray the continuous flux associated with organizations...\" (Weick, p. 42). With the \"stream\" flowing, organizations face the complexity that lead to disaster or innovation. Metaphors help to take these complex ideas and bring clarity. Morgan's (1997) metaphor of organizations as a psychic prison further illustrated the complexity. According to Morgan, a person's psyche has hidden mechanisms that affect the thought processes that can deflect a person away from true reality. These unconscious habits, dependencies, or worries stimulate how the person develops and continues to develop relationships. The thought progression is distressed as traditions, anxiety, and/or paranoia influence behaviors and trigger stress in other areas of life. Organizations are not left isolated from these thoughts. Morgan explained that because of the psychic prison, the leader has buried fears that cause him or her not to accept advice from anyone, especially from a follower. In turn, followers, because of these prisons, develop a rivalry among each other that influences the amount of information he or she will share with the leader. Organizations are subsequently hindered and trapped by these prisons and will have trouble growing or being innovative unless the complexity around psychic prisons is addressed. In research by Weick (1979), the metaphor's complexity was demonstrated more as an evolutionary process that \"enlarge the pictures so that small details are clear\" (p. 252). Metaphor becomes a magnifying glass. Differently from Morgan, Weick was more interested in the organizational theories that effect leader/follower behaviors, instead of organizational structures. The complexity identified by evaluating these concepts directed Weick in a new course. More significantly, Weick thought the system of metaphor puts \"old things into new combinations and new things into old combinations\" (p. 252) to bring about a clearer picture in a complex theory. Still, Morgan and Weick agreed that metaphors interpret the complex and produced clarity. Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 42 Clarity Metaphor creates clarity by comparing confusing ideas with known objects allowing the audience to understand what is being communicated (Leder, 2007). How? The image the metaphor creates in the mind connects the individual with new thoughts (\"I never saw that before\"), or past thoughts (\"I've always thought, but now I see it a different way\") and brings clear thoughts (\"Now I see\"). These thoughts stimulate emotions either positively or negatively which bring about transformation, innovation, or reorganization in leaders/followers and organizations, especially if theories and ideas are clear. Metaphor is valuable because it makes the complicated, and even the uncomplicated, understandable. Morgan (1997) and Weick (1979) held similar views that metaphors clarify unclear ideas or provide meaning to organizational life. The idea does not necessarily have to be complicated for followers to understand. Metaphor is needed for simple communication and is important in shaping clarity. Morgan's brain metaphor communicated several concepts about organizations. Leaders and followers comprehend but in different ways, simply because of his or her position in the organization. Does that make the metaphor ineffective? Not necessarily! It gives an opportunity for the relational aspect of organizations to develop. To resolve this issue of diverse understanding of a metaphor, leaders and followers need to explain what the metaphor illustrates to each of them. As they do, ideas become clearer and concepts have an improved likelihood of being implemented or accepted. Weick (1979) developed this concept of connection throughout his book and described it with the words of \"interdependence\" (p. 72), \"interlocked behaviors\" (p. 103), or \"sensemaking\" (p. 194). All of these concepts help to build clarity. The idea for organizations is to develop a clear understanding of who the organization is (culture and reality), where the organization is going (mission), and why the organization exists (vision and purpose). The metaphor helps to create answers to these questions and bring clarity to the concepts. Morgan (1997) and Weick (1979) used similar metaphors in describing the unseen aspects of the organizations. Morgan's image of organizations as psychic prisons dealt with the \"unconscious\" (p. 243) or hidden aspects of a leader or a follower's psyche. Disruption of the organizational structure because of unexplained fears or repressed feelings in leaders or followers affect whether growth or innovation emerge. Weick paraphrased Hermann (1963) when explaining the behaviors of organizations and why it fails, \"Organizations fail because they remember too much too long and persist too often doing too many things the way they've always done them\" (p. 224). The traditional habits are ingrained in leaders and followers and are naturally applied to situations in the organization. This unconscious behavior is unwise because it leads to stagnation. Using metaphor can surface unconscious emotions and provide means of bringing clarity into the organization. Validity If the metaphor's complexity is made clear, it produces the desired results. Still, it is important to use caution when presenting metaphor as a valid apparatus to describe leaders, followers, and organizations. Metaphor is figurative language and open for different interpretations based upon an individual's thoughts or experiences. Davidson (1978) stated his fear that, \"understanding the metaphor is as much a creative endeavor as making a metaphor, and as little guided by rules [italics added]\" (p. 29). Clarifying the imagery is suspect so validity is Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 43 questionable. However, Jensen (2006) believed that figurative language is valid in research, \"Metaphors enable the connection of information about a familiar concept to another familiar concept, leading to a new understanding where the process of comparison between the two concepts acts as generators for new meaning\" (p. 5). The issue is in defining the metaphor. It cannot be taken literally. Jensen illustrated by describing the well-known statement used by Forrest Gump, \"Life is like a box of chocolates.\" The statement taken literally implies \"life = a box of chocolates\" (p. 7). Nonetheless, the observer understands that it cannot be the case and begins to look for a \"non-literal\" meaning. Even though metaphor has limitations, Morgan (1997) and Weick (1979) declared that it is still valid in explaining organizations and its concepts. \"Hence the need for a coherent linguistic array (e.g., a vocabulary or set of images) that 'frames' what is happening in such a way that it renders change familiar and easily understood\" (Abel & Sementelli, 2005, p. 443). Ultimately, the desired outcome is enhancing the quality of the organization. The brain and psychic prison metaphor by Morgan and the metaphors by Weick were valid because they gave a point of reference. This perspective, if clear, connects the members of the organization to the organization and these relationships improve the quality. Weick was interested in these relationships while Morgan believed understanding the structure of the organization held more substance. However, the quality is further enhanced when valid metaphors are used in organizations to challenge unimaginative thinking. The freedom to express ideas, opinions, and information with imaginative language like metaphor, creates an environment of innovation and transformation. Creativity The figurative device of metaphor and its interpretation fits well with creativity. In organizations, leaders describe it as innovation. In spite of how the term is expressed, metaphor augments creativity by connecting images and description with colorful language. This is profitable for leaders when communicating complex ideas or when needing to clarify concepts or to overcome shifts in direction of the organization. Kouzes and Posner (2002) had found extended metaphor or story \"gives life to vision\" and enabled leaders to develop a \"shared identity\" with followers (p. 155). Leaders and followers combine efforts to be creative and develop solutions for problems within organizations. Through descriptive language, the people relive the experience creating an organizational story. \"So when it's time to provide a memorable concept, nothing's better than a metaphor\" (Leder, 2007). \"Metaphor supplies language with flexibility, expressibility, and a way to expand language\" (Weick, 1979, p. 47). The flexibility (or non-flexibility) of organizations was illustrated by Morgan's (1997) two metaphors. The brain is an ever changing, always functioning organ. The brain is never inactive. Even in rest, the brain is working and still creative. This is true of organizations as well. The psychic prison metaphor illustrates the inflexibility of organizations. Imprisonment or confinement can hinder the creative process and may cause worries or fears. Leaders and/or followers need to have the language expanded (Weick, 1979) with metaphor when simple words will not communicate the ideas. Metaphors breed creativity and create new thoughts. Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 44 Metaphor: A Valuable Tool According to Morgan (1997), metaphor now has become a valuable tool for leaders in communicating to or about the organization. Weick (1979) took a different approach on metaphor and its importance to the organization. He believed figurative language helps leaders to clarify organizing concepts or theories, so that a healthy culture is established. Still, the authors thought leaders must make use of metaphor to describe, compare, and connect the organization with reality so as to create a positive culture and to add depth to understanding and relationships. Morgan (1997) and Weick (1979) viewed metaphors as tools that are valuable for elucidating the issues organizations tackle and for creating a positive environment. The issues mentioned previously of complexity, clarity, validity and creativity, are not exhaustive. Additionally, figurative language helps to cast vision and shape culture and is an effective tool leadership must invest time in learning. Harris and Barnes (2006) agreed and stated, \"Stories, allegories, and metaphors are fast and powerful leadership tools for communicating complex concepts in unforgettable ways\" and \"you [the leader] may be brilliant in your own field, but if you cannot communicate your idea in a way that makes it understandable to those outside your field, you place limits on your idea\" (p. 351). Oswick and Montgomery (1999) drew the same conclusion and suggested that leaders who use metaphors to explore his or her organization gave expression to \"previously tacit perceptions\" (p. 519) and created a positive attitude among the followers. The metaphorical tool finds value in tackling difficult issues and in cultivating a better culture among leaders and followers in the organization. The value of metaphor, according to Morgan (1997), was that it illustrates behaviors that shape the organizational culture by presenting reality in a creative way, by creating new ideas, and by shaping vision. The brain metaphor portrays this rather satisfactorily as it works to process reality daily with new thoughts and then adding priority to those thoughts to accomplish tasks for the day. Weick (1979) believed that organizations are shaped more by its environment other than what is understood and metaphor is valuable because it aids in understanding this reality as the organization constantly changes. According to Weick, the organizational culture needed to be flexible because reality is subjective. The metaphorical language he used gave evidence for his subjective tendency. ztel and Hinz (2001) observed Weick's writing as subjective and deduced: Not only do we \"function\" better in organisations [sic] when using narratives as opposed to rational analysis, but we also need stories that are relevant as opposed to accurate. A relevant template is more powerful in sensemaking [sic] than a comprehensive rational analysis. (p. 158) The subjective nature of theory makes using metaphor a valuable tool for organizations. Morgan (1997) and Weick differed at this point. Morgan preferred the rational metaphor that can explain the organizational structure as opposed to Weick who suggested the process is evolving and ever-changing. As a Dimensional Tool Metaphor is a valuable tool because it adds dimension to language so that better interpretation and/or understanding of the physical, mental, emotional, ethical, and spiritual worlds is obtainable. This goal of explaining humanity and its existence has been part of the search for meaning since the beginning of time. It is no different for organizations. Reality, Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 45 inside or outside the organization can then be evaluated by use of a metaphor. Gaddefors (2007) interpreted research by Inns (2002) who: Suggests a taxonomy consisting of six uses of metaphor... as a research tool, as a teaching tool, as a generative tool for creative thinking, as a tool for deconstructing and questioning embedded assumptions and, finally, as a hegemonic tool to influence perception and interpretation. Although the six uses overlap, our concern is primarily associated with the use of metaphor as a tool to influence perception and interpretation. (p. 178) The dimensional tool is constructed in a metaphorical process (Vince & Broussine, 1996). 1 The metaphor is presented for an audience to hear or see (physical). As the colorful language is thought over, a perception or connection is made about the image and the concept (mental). Emotions (either positive or negative) are created about the relationship between the metaphor and the concept and proper understanding or perception is made about the idea (emotional). Is the concept good or bad, right or wrong? A decision (ethical) now needs to be made about the concept based upon prior knowledge and regarding this new idea determined if it can be accepted and believed (spiritual). The metaphorical process of physical, mental, emotional, ethical, and spiritual understanding assists to discover meaning. Other dimensions can be identified, but this paper will leave that to future research. Metaphor is a valuable tool in developing depth to the organization's structure and existence. Morgan's (1997) and Weick's (1979) writings gave several illustrations of this dimensional tool. Morgan's explanations of the brain metaphor as \"holographic\" (pp. 75-76) and \"right brain, left brain\" (p. 80) developed a different perspective on the organizational structure. Holography creates a three dimensional view giving an encompassing perception on the subject. Compared with the brain, the structure of the organization has many sides and levels which help the organization function effectively. Right and left brain studies have developed concepts about human actions and behaviors. Morgan believed organizations can be labeled with a right or left side decision-making bias (p. 80) which naturally affects the vision, mission, and relations in the organization. Morgan's premise of the brain metaphor was in order to be effective and efficient the organization must utilize both sides of the brain. Even the psychic prison metaphor by Morgan (1997) illustrated the dimensions associated with organizations. It \"plays a powerful role in drawing attention to the ethical dimension of organization,\" and \"an increased awareness of the human dimension needs to be built into everything we do\" (p. 248). Again, metaphor is a valuable tool in providing depth to the organization's composition and life. Weick's recipe (1979) was similar in the metaphorical process. Metaphor is valuable because it generates ideas. The recipe's ingredients express dimensions, but not exhaustively. Organizing theories are developed from these dimensions. \"Organizing is also built around feelings, actions, and desires and collective attempts to understand them\" (p. 134). These levels of existence form a \"map\" (p. 135) and/or a circle that gives understanding to old and new concepts, which then creates new ideas. This process generates deeper levels of perception and thought. Organizations experience the dimensional tool when using metaphor to describe concepts. Understanding and practicing the metaphorical process develops the organizational 1 Vince and Broussine (1996) were helpful in understanding the various processes that exist for change as well as repression and mechanism used by Morgan in the psychic prison metaphor. Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 46 culture and cultivates relationships, which gives the organization another level of reality. The practice effects reality inside and outside the organization. Dimension requires using descriptive words and metaphor is accessible as that tool. As a Descriptive Tool Metaphor is a valuable, descriptive tool because it adds color to language so that leaders, followers, and the organization can work together more efficiently, can understand the perspective that develops a healthy culture, and can deal with new ideas with stable emotions. Color cannot stand alone. It must be applied to an object. Studies have concluded that the color of paint on a wall affects emotions. In the business world, wearing a red tie implies power. Color is the detail of the metaphor and creates memory through shared experience and repetitive practices. Color helps us understand the world around us. Harris and Barnes (2006) explained that using a descriptive tool \"can create an understanding of a scientific principle in the mind of an artist or a young student, a sales manager or subsistence farmer\" (p. 351). Color can even be distorted to create different mental pictures. Still, color is valuable in describing the structure or reality of the organization. To illustrate the point of color, television and radio broadcasts of athletic contests create more description of what is happening in the game by providing a color commentator or analyst. The commentator teams with a play-by-play reporter to provide the audience a different view of the competition. The analyst's job is to give a personal perspective about the game, about the participants, and/or about his or her past participation from a viewpoint of one who has appeared in the competition. Because of his or her participation, the commentator can relate to the players and share those feelings with the audience. The observer senses the emotions by picturing mental images from the commentator's stories and explanations. The expressive information is communicated through colorful language, special noises, and/or descriptive graphics. The color analysts add further details (or color) that the average spectator might not perceive. These new ideas are meant to connect viewers to the game and give the fan more appreciation for or understanding of the game. Consequently, the broadcast of the event is described with color and a valuable, descriptive tool. Metaphor is the color commentator in literature and a descriptive tool for organizations and its theories. As with a color commentator, the metaphor must partner with another object or concept in order to be effective. It creates a perspective that allow leaders and followers to describe perceptions about the organization, about members and relationships within the organization, and about past, present and future perspectives of the organization. As metaphors are interpreted, it provides color or descriptions of new ideas with colorful language, special noises, and descriptive graphics while hoping to generate an emotional response. Morgan's (1997) metaphors were the descriptive tool that added color to his view of organizational structure. He connected the organization with unassociated objects to bring clarity to the complex. The metaphor, as a color commentator for Morgan, tries to create a personal perspective so that members in the organization will embrace the vision and mission. The descriptive tool's value comes when emotions create new thinking. These new ideas help to develop a healthy culture within the organization. Weick's (1979) metaphors were the descriptive tool that added color to concepts and theories of organizing. He believed that a greater understanding and meaning was needed in organizing and that only came from imaginative thinking, which created new ideas. Metaphor is Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 47 the colorful language that aids communicating the new information. According to Weick, beliefs are challenged by this new data and new beliefs are developed which shape organizational culture. On this point Weick disagreed with Morgan (1997) and argued that \"Those who talk about the environment determining the organizational structure introduce some rather simplifying assumptions that we are eager to erase (and replace with other severe simplifying assumptions)\" (p. 135). Colorful language or metaphor is a valuable, descriptive tool Weick chooses in order to describe the changes that need to be made. Metaphor: Beneficial to Organizations Some conclusions have been previously made above about the benefits of metaphor in organizations. Yet, it is important to focus specifically on this aspect of organizations and metaphor and determine if metaphor can be implemented in any type of organization. In addition, how does metaphor affect the organizational culture and how can it be beneficial for the advancement of organizational quality? In so doing, this paper will continue to examine the writings of Morgan (1997) and Weick (1979) and assess the insights of the authors regarding the benefits of metaphor for organizations. Benefits to Organizations Gerritsen (2006) outlined the benefits metaphor performs in organizations, \"Metaphors help constitute the realities we live in. Metaphors give groups and organizations a sense of direction, history, and values\" (p. 12). What benefits do these realities have with a different size organization? Organizations are benefited when metaphor depicts direction. Directions are charted from a map, which means organizations must have a plan to make sure it is on the correct course. Metaphor is beneficial in outlining this plan. It gives clarity to the course especially if changes in direction need to be made. When course correction occurs in the organization, participation by all members is vital for a successful transition. Cooperation can be described with metaphor and can create an easier change in direction. Still, the change must be communicated effectively and as learned above, metaphor is a valuable tool for this task. Morgan (1997) believed that the method of finding direction had changed. To illustrate, he described this process with a case study of the company, Multicom. A new direction was the intention of the entrepreneurs as they developed their company. As the company grew, Morgan explained the innovative company changed course and to some lost their sense of direction. Planning, cooperation, and communication broke down and hindered the sense of direction. Morgan reasoned that metaphor benefited the organization by detailing direction. Weick (1979) specified plans as \"symbols,\" \"advertisements,\" \"games,\" and \"excuses for interaction\" (pp. 10-11). Still, he was critical of planning as being valuable for the organization in order to move in the right direction or stay on course. Because he viewed organizing as an evolutionary process, direction was already determined and plans were simply controlling the present activity within the organization. Organizations are benefited when metaphor is used to explain the organization's history. The past is a metaphor or extended metaphor. The story of the organization's life comes from memories or from writings, but help to organize the future. Weick (1979) believed that organizing concepts materialize from looking forward with imagination, not just from describing Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 48 the past. He cautioned that history or story can and has been severely edited, so all the details may not be known or available for scrutiny. By observing the history of the organization, though, certain patterns can be discovered. The benefit is to learn from past mistakes or to continue doing things that have been done well. Not only should one learn from his or her own mistakes, but Morgan (1997) believed it is important to examine the history of other organizations to learn from them as well. Metaphor is beneficial in explaining the details of the organization's history. Finally, metaphor is beneficial to organizations by clarifying values. A common set of values can come from history or give the organization direction. Metaphor shapes values and connects them to reality. Organizations who list belief statements desire its members to follow and communicate those values inside and outside of the organization. The challenge is for followers to understand the values in order to accomplish this task. Morgan (1997), in describing organizations as brains, stated that value and other dimensions, \"creates a capacity for each person to embody and act in a way that represents the whole\" (p. 102). Metaphors become invaluable in revealing the meaning of the concepts and structures of organizations. Regardless of the size of the organizations it is beneficial to use metaphor to examine the direction, history, and values. Small organizations, like a family, may not formally declare these realities, but still have a sense of what course the family should take. As in a large organization, a smaller unit develops plans, works together to accomplish tasks and communicates between units. History and values also play a significant role in the family organization and creative language benefits the construction of organizational life. A common language or culture is developed in the small unit that gives it uniqueness. The process occurs in large organizations and metaphor benefits its structure as well. The figurative language device connects people, develops memories, stories, and relationships, and if balanced and maintained, produces organizational quality. \"Metaphor is recognized as a means to understanding complex and abstract ideas and therefore has become a commonly used device in the study of organizational leadership\" (Linn, Sherman, & Gill, 2007). Morgan's brain and psychic prison metaphors (1997) had some limitations when applied to smaller organizations compared to larger organizations, nevertheless prove effective. Simply, the small organization described as the brain is limited by the number of perspectives that are available for solving issues. A larger organization is able to generate many more perspectives because of the diverse groups of people and the various resources. However, the brain when described as multi-dimensional or \"holographic\" (Morgan, p. 100) clearly can be utilized to depict the small group. The psychic prison metaphor was more disruptive and debilitating in small organizations because the lack of members hindered the amount of production or tasks that could be accomplished. \"Dark shadows\" (pp. 239-243) in a larger environment can be overcome by the sheer volume of people with a greater possibility to hide the secret or repress feelings. Still, whether large or small, the organizational culture is affected and the quality of performance is impeded. Metaphors benefit organizations, large or small, as the device illustrates the positive or negative issues faced by each. Culture of Organizations The organizational culture is a combination of language, values, environment, history, theories, ideas, etc., that metaphor pictures for understanding and meaning inside and outside the organization. Deignan (2003) suggested, \"From another perspective, 'culture' can be perceived as including the dominant ideologies of a community\" (p. 256) and intriguingly studied the Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 49 effects metaphor had in organizations cross-culturally in the same manner as Grisham (2006). Repetition of the story or metaphor enhances the organizational culture. Dr. Jerry Falwell viewed the history of Thomas Road Baptist Church and Liberty University as an extended metaphor demonstrating a life of faith, and shared the story frequently to connect members in the organization. Repetition of oral tradition is important for leaders and followers, so that each one understands and remembers the details of what it took to develop the present culture. The organization is benefited when observers study the culture. According to Morgan (1997), culture was developed by the members of the organization, whereas Weick (1979) believed the environment caused certain behaviors more than what is realized. This point was discussed above; nevertheless embracing one of the author's viewpoints determines how leaders advance the culture of his or her organization. Still, organizational culture is developed and improved by the use of metaphor. According to Abel and Sementelli (2005), \"Organizational cultures are constructed, deconstructed, and reconstructed by themselves, all the time, through the everyday behaviors of the people involved, and they change in ways administrators can neither anticipate nor control\" (p. 445). Even with the seemingly chaotic process, the desire of leadership is to create quality organizations. How is quality measured within organizations in this chaotic atmosphere? Quality is measured by observing a positive morale among leaders and followers, examining the experience of the leader, and evaluating the environment. Metaphor benefits the culture of the organization by explaining these concepts and by comparing each metaphor and idea so that the concept's value is discovered. When a significant number in the organization understand the concept by associating it with the metaphor, a healthier environment is produced. Conclusion The research indicates and concludes that metaphors are multifaceted, a valuable tool, beneficial to organizations, and according to Morgan (1997) and Weick (1979), deserve extensive study. One facet of a metaphor exhibits complexity and another facet presents clarity. The ideas together appear illogical, but that is the challenge (Morgan, p. 348) of this literary device. Another facet of metaphor is validity. Is metaphor a valid tool for research? Researchers must proceed with caution because of the subjective nature of metaphor, but conclusive evidence demonstrates the value of using metaphor to discern research. More conclusively, a metaphor is a compelling device in describing organizations. Morgan's and Weick's research determined the importance of comparing objects and concepts with organizations. A final facet examined was creativity. Figurative language, like metaphor, naturally is creative and expands the interpretation and understanding for leaders and followers within the organization. More than multifaceted, the metaphor is a valuable tool as it adds dimension and color to the organization. The levels of dimension affect the physical, mental, emotional, ethical, and spiritual expressions of human existence. As a dimensional tool, metaphor is valuable because it connects with each aspect and creates depth to the understanding and meaning of the organization. As a descriptive tool, metaphor's value is that it adds color. Color, like metaphor must be attached to an object in order to have meaning. Metaphor is a color commentator for organizations. The research concludes that organizations are benefited by using metaphor as it describes its direction, its history, and its values. The advantages for organizations, regardless of the size, Emerging Leadership Journeys, Vol. 1 Iss. 1, 2008, pp. 39-51 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent University ISSN 1941-4684 Van Engen/EMERGING LEADERSHIP JOURNEYS 50 are that culture is identified and enhanced. Morgan (1997), Weick (1979), and this author determined that metaphor warrants further comprehensive study. The future study concerns metaphor use cross-culturally. Morgan and Weick did not extensively address the use of metaphor in culturally diverse settings, but with organizations outsourcing and diversifying, plus technology and travel readily available, international relationships are growing and a global thought process needs to be considered. Deignan (2003) and Grisham (2006) did address the effects of using metaphors cross-culturally. An example would be the School of Global Leadership and Entrepreneurship. The name is significant and gives a description of the desired training for Regent University students. It is intended to be global. What does that mean? Leadership has moved from small, specific cultures and now involves a global perspective. An examination of the faculty and the students in the doctoral program identifies this perception. Students travel from different continents to earn his or her degree. Faculty come from various countries to equip future colleagues with a global mindset. To develop an international perspective on the use of metaphor, questions need to be asked for future research. How is the use of metaphor hindered or enhanced in a cross-cultural situation? Can metaphor be understood and effectively communicated in cross-cultural organizations? Are there universal metaphors? If so, can these be identified and used effectively? Hopefully, metaphor is useful in different cultures and by different ethnic groups, so that an understanding of global cultures and languages is learned and used to develop organizations cross-culturally. Further study is justified. About the Author Rob Van Engen is an assistant director of Christian and community service and a professor of worldview and contemporary issues at Liberty University in Lynchburg, Virginia. He earned a B.S. in pastoral ministries with a minor in Greek from Liberty and an M.A. in ministry leadership from Grand Rapids Theological Seminary of Cornerstone University. 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