Please give sampling methods based off the article below :

Background:Varsity student athletes are a high-risk drinking group, exhibiting a greater propensity to binge drink than their non-sport peers. Moreover, as in- tercollegiate athletic involvement increases, so too does alcohol consumption. There is little research, however, which examines drinking behaviors of students who participate in nonvarsity athletics.Objectives:Identify differences in alcohol-related behaviors and associated consequences among U.S. varsity, club, and intramu- ral athletes, and nonathlete college students.Methods:Secondary data analysis of the 2011 National College Health Assessment (n=29,939).Results:Intramural athletes binge drank more frequently (M=1.1, SD=1.7) than club athletes (M=1.0, SD=1.6), intercolle- giate athletes (M=0.9, SD=1.5), and nonathletes (M=0.6, SD=1.3) and also experienced greater alcohol- related consequences. Intramural athletes consumed the most during their last drinking episode (M=4.1, SD=4.0) and reached the highest blood alcohol con- centration (BAC) (M=0.062, SD=0.09).Compared to club and varsity athletes [M=0.8, SD=1.4;t(8,131)= 9.6,p<.001], intramural-only athletes reported binge drinking significantly more frequently (M=1.2, SD=1.7) and also reached significantly higher BACs during most recent drinking episode (M=0.064, SD=0.08) than organized sport athletes [M=0.057, SD=0.08;t(8,050)= 3.0,p=.003].Conclusions:Intra- mural athletes represent a higher-risk drinking group than other athlete and nonathlete college students. Fu- ture research should investigate factors contributing to drinking differences among different athlete groups.

KeywordsAlcohol, College student, Athlete, Intramural, Varsity, Intercollegiate

INTRODUCTION

For decades, research has repeatedly documented that female and male varsity intercollegiate student-athletes

were more likely to binge drink than their nonstudent- athlete peers (Ford 2007; Martens, Dams-O'Connor, & Beck, 2006a; Nelson & Wechsler, 2001; Turrisi, Mallett, Mastroleo, & Larimer, 2006). In addition, some investiga- tions have actually demonstrated that as an individual's in- volvement and/or engagement in intercollegiate athletics increases, so too does their drinking behaviors (Leichliter, Meilman, Presley, & Cashin, 1998). Specifically, in one of the few longitudinal studies of intercollegiate athletes, Cadigan, Littlefield, Martens, & Sher (2013) documents students who are involved in intercollegiate athletics at freshmen and/or senior year demonstrated sharper in- creases in heavy drinking, frequency of intoxication, and alcohol-related problems during college than those not in- volved in athletics. Furthermore, students who ceased ath- letic involvement (i.e., athletically involved as a freshmen but not as a senior) exhibited smaller increases in heavy drinking, frequency of intoxication, and alcohol-related problems than those who started athletic involvement (i.e., athletically involved as a senior, but not as a freshmen). In other words, those who start athletic involvement engage in heavy drinking, while those who cease athletic involve- ment drink less than consistent athletes (those who remain athletically involved) (Cadigan et al., 2013). Hildebrand, Johnson, & Bogle (2001) documented similar trends when comparing athletic involvement in high school and college, such that as athletic involvement increased, so too did the likelihood of being classified as a heavy drinker.

In addition to drinking in greater quantity and fre- quency than their nonathlete peers, college student ath- letes also experience a greater proportion of alcohol- related consequences (Leichliter et al., 1998; Martens et al., 2006a; Nelson & Wechsler, 2001; Yusko, Buck- man, White, & Pandina, 2008). In particular, the exces- sive drinking behaviors of college student athletes results in severe negative consequences, such as later regretting one's actions, experiencing an unintended injury, getting in trouble with the police, and sexually taking advantage

Address correspondence to Adam E Barry, Health & Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, Blocker Building 314C, College Station,

302

of someone else (Leichliter et al., 1998; Nelson & Wech- sler, 2001).

To date, however, the vast majority of this literature has focused almost exclusively on comparing intercollegiate athletes to nonathletes and as a result has failed to account for differences in drinking behaviors of students partici- pating in other sporting groups (e.g., intramural and club sport participants). As a result, researchers have asserted "insufficient research has looked into the drinking patterns and behaviors of club/intramural athletes as their own sub- populations" (Andes, Poet, & McWilliams, 2012, p.561). Moreover, much of the currently available literature has focused on single indicators of alcohol consumption (pri- marily binge drinking) when examining the drinking be- haviors of intercollegiate athletes and/or comparing them to nonathletes (see Brenner & Swanik, 2007; Ford, 2007; Nelson & Wechsler, 2001; Yusko et al., 2008). To account for these gaps in the literature, the primary objective of the present study is to explore differences in alcohol-related behaviors and alcohol-related consequences experienced among varsity athletes, club sport athletes, intramural ath- letes, and nonathlete college students.

METHODS

This study is a secondary data analysis using items from the American College Health Association's National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA) (American College Health Association, 2014). Focusing on college student health behaviors, the ACHA-NCHA solicits infor- mation related to alcohol and illicit substance abuse, sex- ual activity, dietary habits, physical activity, and mental health.

Sample

The Fall 2011 ACHA-NCHA sample included 29,939 dis- tinct students from 44 campuses throughout the United States. Represented institutions of higher education var- ied according to institution type (private and public; 2- and 4-year institutions; graduate and/or undergradu- ate degree programs), religious affiliation (e.g., secular, Catholic, Protestant), student body size (fewer than 2,500 to 20,000 or more students), geographic location within the United States, and minority status (e.g., historically African American college, Hispanic-serving institution). Each institution used random sampling techniques to re- cruit participants, followed by web-based (n=42; 95%) or classroom-based/paper form (n=2; 5%) surveying. Once all surveys were completed for each institution, ex- ecutive summaries, reference group reports, and aggregate data sets were created by the ACHA.

Measures

Alcohol Consumption

Alcohol consumption was broken down into two sepa- rate categories: binge drinking and number of drinks con- sumed during last drinking episode. First, binge drink- ing was assessed as a continuous variable using the item "Over the last 2 weeks, how many times have you had

five or more drinks of alcohol at a sitting?" Response options included: "N/A, don't drink," "None," "1 time" through "9 times," and "10 or more times." Second, the number of drinks consumed during the most recent drink- ing episode was measured as a continuous variable using the item "The last time you partied/socialized, how many drinks of alcohol did you have?" Respondents were to in- dicate a number from 0 to 99. Responses to this item were trimmed to account for extreme values. Specifically, val- ues in the upper two thirds of possible responses (i.e., in excess of 30 drinks) were set as system missing for the analysis so that results were not unduly influenced and to correct for any nonnormality. Our measures of frequency of binge drinking and number of drinks consumed dur- ing last drinking episode were significantly correlated (r=.6,p<.001). Cohen (1988) considers this strength of relationship to be large.

Blood Alcohol Concentration

Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) was treated as a con- tinuous variable and calculated using the adjusted Wid- mark (1981) equation, which approximates BAC lev- els based on self-report data for weight, sex, amount of alcohol consumed, and number of hours over which alcohol was consumed (NHTSA, 1994). As a result, re- sponses from four items of the NCHA were operational- ized to estimate BAC: weight ("What is your weight in pounds?"), sex ("What is your gender?"), amount of alco- hol consumed ("The last time you partied/socialized, how many drinks of alcohol did you have?"), and the number of hours drinking ("The last time you partied/socialized, over how many hours did you drink alcohol?"). To cal- culate/estimate BAC, it is necessary to know not only time spent on drinking, but also amount consumed when drinking. For the Widmarks equation, most recent drink- ing episode is an ideal reference point to measure both length of a drinking episode and quantity consumed dur- ing that episode as it will prevent more recall bias than a reference point further back in time (i.e., in the past year).

Alcohol-related Consequences

Consequences resulting from alcohol consumption were assessed via nine distinct items. Each item began with the following question stem: "Within the last 12 months. Have you experienced any of the following as a conse- quence of your drinking?". A variety of consequences were assessed, including: "did something you later re- gretted", "had unprotected sex", "physically injured yourself", "had sex without giving your consent", and "seriously considered suicide."Response options were di- chotomous no (coded 0) or yes (coded 1). A cumula- tive consequence score was calculated by adding all yes responses, with higher scores indicating experiencing a greater number of negative alcohol-related consequences within the past year.

Athletic Involvement

Athletic involvement was determined by responses to the question "Within the last 12 months, have you participated

ALCOHOL USE AMONG COLLEGE ATHLETES303

304A. E. BARRY ET AL.

in organized college athletics at any of the following lev- els?" Respondents indicated "yes" or "no" for participa- tion in each of the following sports: varsity (n=2,252; 8%), club (n=2,160; 8%), and intramural (n=3,505; 13%). Respondents were assigned to the highest level of athletic involvement that they indicated. For instance, if a respondent indicated competing in club and intramu- ral sports, that respondent would be classified as a club- athlete. Similarly, those indicating participation in varsity athletics could not be considered club or intramural ath- letes as well.

Data Analysis

Using the Predictive Analytics SoftWare (PASW) (version 21.0), basic descriptive statistics (meanSD) were ini- tially calculated to outline sample characteristics. One- way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were subsequently conducted to assess mean differences in: (a) rates of binge drinking over the past 2 weeks, (b) the number of drinks consumed during the most recent drinking episode, (c) BAC achieved during the most recent drinking episode across athletic involvement groups (i.e., intramural ath- lete, club athlete, and intercollegiate athlete), and (d) alcohol-related consequences experienced. Tests of ho- mogeneity of variances were included, followed by ro- bust tests of equality of means, when necessary. Follow- ing a statistically significant F-statistic, Tukey's post-hoc analyses were conducted to identify where the differences among groups occurred. Finally, independent samplet- tests were conducted to compare drinking behaviors (i.e., binge, amount consumed during most recent episode, and BAC) among intramural athletes and athletes participating in organized sports (i.e., club and intercollegiate). To ac- count for this investigation's large sample size, effect sizes are reported for all significant mean differences identified in the ANOVA (2) andt-test (Cohen'sd) analyses.

RESULTS

Sample Characteristics

The mean age of respondents was 22.3 (6.1) years. Overall, the sample population was primarily White (75.6%), undergraduate (86.3%), female (66.1%), and enrolled full-time at their respective university (92.5%). Within the past 30 days, 62% of all respondents used al- cohol, including 63.2% of males and 61.6% of females. On average, participants who drank consumed 4.7 (3.8) drinks the last time they partied/socialized. The majority of drinkers did not binge drink within the last 2 weeks (42.9%), while 21.4% binge drank on one to two occa- sions. Among those who participated in organized college athletics, 8.3% were varsity athletes, 10.2% club sport ath- letes, and 19.8% intramural athletes.

Drinking Behaviors among All Athletes and Nonathletes Results from the one-way ANOVA identified a statisti- cally significant difference in frequency of binge drink-

ing within the past 2 weeks [F(3, 8716.6)=193.6,p=.001]. Intramural athletes binge drank most frequently (M=1.1, SD=1.7), followed by club athletes (M=1.0, SD=1.6), intercollegiate athletes (M=0.9, SD=1.5), and nonathletes (M=0.6, SD=1.3). The effect size for these differences in group means, calculated us- ing eta squared, was small (2=0.02). Tukey's post-hoc analysis revealed nonathletes (those who did not report in- volvement in any athletic competition, intramural or oth- erwise) binge drank significantly less often than all types of athletes. For instance, a statistically significant mean difference of0.54 (0.02) was found for the frequency of binge drinking among nonathletes compared to intra- mural athletes [95% CI (0.60,0.47),p=.001]. Like- wise, club-level athletes [95% CI (0.49,0.33),p=.001] and intercollegiate athletes [95% CI (0.41,0.25),p=.001] binge drank significantly more often than nonathletes.

A statistically significant difference was also found for the number of drinks consumed during the last drinking episode based on athletic involvement [F(3, 8499.4)=197.7,p=.001]. Similar to differences in frequency of binge drinking, intramural athletes consumed the most drinks during their last drinking episode (M=4.1, SD=4.0), followed by intercollegiate athletes (M=3.9, SD=4.2), club athletes (M=3.9, SD=3.9) and nonath- letes (M=2.8, SD=3.3). The effect size for differ- ences across group means was small (2=0.02). Post-hoc analysis revealed that nonathletes consumed significantly fewer drinks during their last drinking episode than in- tramural [95% CI (1.43,1.10),p=.001], club [95% CI (1.26,0.85),p=.001], and intercollegiate athletes [95% CI (1.24,0.84),p=.001].

Athletes and nonathletes also reached statistically dif- ferent BACs during their last drinking episode [F (3, 8068.8)=95.9,p=.001]. Club athletes reached the high- est BAC (M=0.064, SD=0.09), followed by intercol- legiate athletes (M=0.062, SD=0.09), intramural ath- letes (M=0.06, SD=0.08) and nonathletes (M=0.043, SD=0.08). The effect size for differences across group means was small (2=0.01). Post-hoc analysis revealed nonathletes reached significantly lower BACs than intra- mural (95% CI:0.02 to0.01,p=.001), club (95% CI:0.02 to0.01,p=.001), and intercollegiate ath- letes (95% CI:0.02 to0.01,p=.001).

The number of alcohol-related consequences expe- rienced within the past year also significantly differed among athletes and nonathletes [F(3, 8519.2)=114.0,p=.001]. Intramural athletes experienced the greatest number of alcohol-related consequences (M=1.0, SD=1.3), followed by club athletes (M=1.0, SD=1.4), in- tercollegiate athletes (M=0.90, SD=1.3) and nonath- letes (M=0.68, SD=1.2). The effect size for differences across group means was small (2=0.01). Post-hoc anal- ysis revealed nonathletes experienced significantly fewer alcohol-related consequences than intramural (95% CI:0.39 to0.28,p=.001), club (95% CI:0.39 to0.25,p=.001), and intercollegiate athletes (95% CI:0.29 to0.15,p=.001).

Comparing Drinking Behaviors between Intramural and Organized Sport Athletes Considering the aforementioned results, intramural ath- letes exhibited the highest drinking behaviors among all groups. To further investigate differences in drinking be- haviors among only those participating in athletics, an in- dependent samplest-test compared alcohol consumption rates for those participating in intramurals with those who participated in an organized sport (i.e., club and/or in- tercollegiate athletics). Intramural athletes reported binge drinking with significantly more frequency (M=1.2, SD=1.7) than athletes in organized sports [M=0.8, SD=1.4;t(8,131)= 9.6,p<0.001]. Intramural athletes also reached significantly higher BACs during their most recent drinking episode (M=0.064, SD=0.08) than or- ganized sport athletes [M=0.057, SD=0.08;t(8,050)= 3.0,p=0.003]. However, the magnitude of the differ- ences in group means for binge drinking frequency (mean difference= 0.37, 95% CI:0.44 to0.30) and BAC (mean difference= 0.01, 95% CI:0.01 to0.00) was relatively small (d= 0.23,0.07, respectively).

DISCUSSION

Findings from the present study echo those of previous work which document college students participating in recreational intramural sports consume significantly more drinks per week, achieve significantly higher peak BACs, and also experience more alcohol-related consequences than nonathlete students (Cadigan et al., 2013; Grossbard, Geisner, Neighbors, Kilmer, & Larimer, 2007). Similar to Greek-letter social organization members (see Barry, 2007), student-athletes have long been considered a high- risk drinking group. This investigation, however, revealed that intramural athletes actually represent a higher-risk drinking group than intercollegiate athletes, club sport athletes, and nonathlete college students. Andes et al. (2012) asserted, "Intramural/club sport programs, often loosely organized and supervised, provide a much-needed antidote for missing the camaraderie of high school sports. Many former high school athletes migrate to intramu- ral/club college athletics and to Greek organizations to help ease the isolation of being a new college student" (p. 561). As such, it seems inappropriate to lump var- sity intercollegiate athletes, club athletes, and intramu- ral athletes into a single "athlete group" as some have done previously (see Martens, Pedersen, Smith, Stewart, & O'Brien, 2011). Future research should further exam- ine differences among different athlete groups (intramu- ral, club, and intercollegiate) and also seek to investigate what factors (e.g., drinking motives, social norms, con- formity, peer influences, social availability/opportunity) contribute to alcohol use differences among these distinct groups.

Among intercollegiate athletes exclusively, descriptive drinking norms (e.g., perceived drinking of one's closest friend who was an athlete) exhibit a stronger effect on

personal alcohol consumption of athletes than nonathlete norms, particularly among men (Martens et al., 2006a). Intercollegiate varsity athletes also estimate that others (typical and friend athletes, as well as typical and friend nonathletes) consumed more alcohol per week than them- selves, and these perceived social norms predicted their own use (Dams-O'Connor, Martin, & Martens, 2007). While nonathlete and athlete norms demonstrate strong effects on personal alcohol use, athlete norms demonstrate a stronger relationship on the drinking behaviors of in- tercollegiate athletes (Martens, Dams-O'Connor, Duffy- Paiement, & Gibson, 2006b). Intercollegiate athletes also exhibit several social factors that influence binge drink- ing behaviors (i.e., consider parties important, spend two or more hours socializing, 70% or more of friends are binge drinkers) (Nelson & Wechsler, 2001). Yusko and colleagues (2008) proposed that the risk profile of stu- dent athletes was only subtly different from the risk pro- file of nonathletes, with sensation seeking being the most distinguishing/influential factor. Previous work has called for interventions to target individuals who demonstrate elevated sensation seeking to be instructed on alterna- tive strategies for increasing positive arousal as a method for decreasing alcohol consumption (Magid, Maclean, & Colder, 2007). Given the relatively similar risk profiles of athletes and nonathletes, it is possible that strategies em- ployed among the general student body could be appli- cable to athletes with minimal alteration. Thus, strategies providing personalized normative feedback (Neighbors, Lewis, Bergstrom, & Larimer, 2006) and emphasizing protective behavioral strategies (Noble, Madson, Mohn, & Mandracchia, 2013) could be utilized and adapted to fit the unique context of athletes. That said, it is important that future research attempt to determine if factors influ- encing the general student body also the drinking behav- iors and associated consequences of club and/or intramu- ral athletes. Future research should further examine the unique differences between intercollegiate athletes and in- termural and/or club athletes.

While this investigation offers new insights into the drinking behaviors among college student athletes, there are a number of limitations that must also be considered. Given that secondary data were analyzed, this investiga- tion inherits the limitations associated with the NCHA survey design and methods, as well as the self-report na- ture of the data. Along these lines, our operationalization of alcohol-related behaviors and associated consequences is reliant upon the survey items utilized by the NCHA. That said, it is important to note that the variables included in our investigation constitute all of the personal alcohol- related quantity and frequency questions included in the NCHA. While institutions employ random selection of re- spondents, schools do self-select into participation. Cou- pled with the high percentage of female participants, our ability to generalize to all college students nationally may be limited despite data being drawn from a nationally rep- resentative sample of college students. Lastly, the main limitation with this investigation is our uncertainty about

ALCOHOL USE AMONG COLLEGE ATHLETES305

306A. E. BARRY ET AL.

when the survey occurred with regards to the competitive season of the respective athlete respondents.

CONCLUSIONS

Intercollegiate and club athletes, in particular, may ben- efit from education efforts focused on the effects of al- cohol and other drugs on athletic performance (Martin, 1998). However, it is worth noting that alcohol consump- tion among athletes changes depending on the time of year, such that athletes drink in greater quantities and with increased frequency outside of their competitive season (Bower & Martin, 1999; Martin, 1998; Dams-O'Connor et al., 2007). Thus, interventions focusing on effects of drinking on athletic performance may not be as impact- ful during "off-seasons." Moreover, Turrisi and colleagues (2006) contend "Because of the overall lack of under- standing regarding influences that affect student athlete drinking, few interventions have been developed to tar- get this high-risk group" (p. 410). Given that even less information is known about the drinking of club and in- tramural athletes, more research may be warranted before implementing interventions and programs.

Declaration of Interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the article.

Steven M. Howell, Ph.D. currently serves as an Assistant Professor of Sport Management in the Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education at Northern Illinois University. Broadly speaking, his research centers on areas of sport management, marketing, and economicsspecifically examining the extent to which incentives are created and impacted by changes in policies

in sport. Howell also has an interdisciplinary interest in exploring the alcohol-related behaviors and beliefs of college-aged students and other individuals related to their consumption of sport- specific events, activities, and services. Peer-reviewed outlets featuring his scholarly work include theJournal of Primary Prevention,Journal of Safety Research, andJournal of Applied Sport Management.

Adam Riplinger, MBA is currently a graduate student in the M.S. program in sport management and M.B.A. program at Northern Illinois University. He also serves as a graduate research assistant within the Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education.

Anna K. Piazza-Gardner, Ph.D. is a recent graduate of the University of Florida. Her primary research interest focuses on alcohol and physical activity- related behaviors among college students. She is also involved

in research focusing on health behaviors and physical fitness among career firefighters. Piazza-Gardner's scholarly work has been published in peer-reviewed outlets such as

theAmerican Journal of Health Promotion,Journal of American College Health, andOccupational Medicine.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Club athlete: A club athlete is a male or female college student who participates in an organized competitive sport offered at the educational institution in which he or she is enrolled. These athletesARE NOTregulated by an intercollegiate athletic association (e.g., National Collegiate Athletic Association, National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics, etc.). Club sport teams are generally student-run and club athletes generally re- ceive little to no sport-specific financial aid (e.g., schol- arships, grants) from the university.

THE AUTHORS

Journal of Public Health,Health Education & Behavior,andJournal of School Health, as well as preeminent journals in his research content area (alcohol), such asAddiction,Addictive Behaviors,andJournal of Studies on Alcohol. As a result of his expertise in alcohol use/abuse among college populations, he serves as an Executive Editor for theJournal of American College Healthand is Chair of the American College Health Association's Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drug (ATOD) Coalition.

Adam E. Barry, Ph.D. currently serves as an Associate Professor in the Department of Health & Kinesiology at Texas A&M University. Barry's research focuses broadly upon the assessment and measurement alcohol-related behaviors. Peer- reviewed outlets featuring

his scholarly work include preeminent journals in his discipline (public health education), such asAmerican

Intramural athlete: An intramural athlete is a male or fe- male college student who participates in recreational sports organized by the educational institution in which he or she is enrolled. For the majority of institutions, intramural sports are used to promote health and well- ness; and afford students, who do not compete on a na- tional level, the opportunity to be active.

Non-athlete: A nonathlete is a male or female college stu- dent who does not participate in a varsity, club, or in- tramural sport.

Varsity athlete: A varsity athlete is a male or female col- lege student who participates in an organized compet- itive sport sponsored by the educational institution in which he or she is enrolled. These athletesAREreg- ulated by an intercollegiate athletic association (e.g., National Collegiate Athletic Association, National As- sociation of Intercollegiate Athletics, etc.).Widmark Equation: Based on the influential work of E.M.P. Wid- mark (a Swedish Physician), the Widmark Equation is an algebraic formula commonly used to estimate blood alcohol concentration (BAC). This equation takes into account (1) amount of alcohol consumed since com- mencement of drinking, (2) body weight in pounds, (3) a constant relating the distribution of water in the body in L/kg, (4) average alcohol elimination rate, (5) time passed since drinking commenced, and (6) fluid ounces of alcohol per drink.

REFERENCES

American College Health Association. (2014).National col- lege health assessment.Retrieved from http://www.acha- ncha.org/sample survey.html

Andes, S., Poet, K., & McWilliams, S. (2012). The culture of high- risk alcohol use among club and intramural athletes.Journal of American College Health, 60(8), 556-561.

Barry, A. E. (2007). Using theory based constructs to explore the impact of Greek membership on alcohol-related beliefs and be- haviors: A systematic literature review.Journal of American College Health, 56(3), 307-315.

Bower, B. L., & Martin, M. (1999). African American female basketball players: An examination of alcohol and drug be- haviors.Journal of American College Health, 48(3), 129- 133.

Brenner, J., & Swanik, K. (2007). High-risk drinking characteris- tics in collegiate athletes.Journal of American College Health, 56(3), 267-272.

Cadigan, J. M., Littlefield, A. K., Martens, M. P., & Sher, K. J. (2013). Transitions into and out of intercollegiate athletic in- volvement and risky drinking.Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74(1), 21-29.

Cohen, J. W. (1988).Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences(2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Dams-O'Connor, K., Martin, J. L., & Martens, M. P. (2007). Social norms and alcohol consumption among intercollegiate athletes:

The role of athlete and nonathlete reference groups.Addictive

Behaviors, 32(11), 2657-2666. Ford, J. A. (2007). Substance use among college athletes: A com-

parison based on sport/team affiliation.Journal of American

College Health, 55(6), 367-373. Grossbard, J., Geisner, I. M., Neighbors, C., Kilmer, J. R., &

Larimer, M. E. (2007). Are drinking games sports? College ath- letic participation in drinking games and alcohol-related prob- lems.Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(1), 97-105.

Hildebrand, K. M., Johnson, D. J., & Bogle, K. (2001). Comparison of patterns of alcohol use between high school and college ath- letes and non-athletes.College Student Journal, 35(3), 358-365.

Leichliter, J. S., Meilman, P. W., Presley, C. A., & Cashin, J. R. (1998). Alcohol use and related consequences among students with varying levels of involvement in college athletics.Journal of American College Health, 46(6), 257-262.

Magid, V., Maclean, M. G., & Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their medi- ated relations with alcohol use and problems.Addictive Behav- iors, 32(1), 2046-2061.

Martens, M. P., Dams-O'Connor, K., & Beck, N. C. (2006a). A sys- tematic review of college student-athlete drinking: Prevalence rates, sport-related factors, and interventions.Journal of Sub- stance Abuse Treatment, 31(3), 305-316.

Martens, M. P., Dams-O'Connor, K., Duffy-Paiement, C., & Gib- son, J. T. (2006b). Perceived alcohol use among friends and al- cohol consumption among college athletes.Psychology of Ad- dictive Behaviors, 20(2), 178-184.

Martens, M. P., Pedersen, E. R., Smith, A. E., Stewart, S. H., & O'Brien, K. O. (2011). Predictors of alcohol-related outcomes in college athletes: The roles of trait urgency and drinking motives.Addictive Behaviors, 36(5), 456-464.

Martin, M. (1998). The use of alcohol among NCAA Division I fe- male college basketball, softball, and volleyball athletes.Journal of Athletic Training, 33(2), 163-167.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). (1994).

Computing a BAC estimate: Office of Program Development and Evaluation. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Neighbors, C., Lewis, M. A., Bergstrom, R. L., & Larimer, M. E. (2006). Being controlled by normative influences: Self- determination as a moderator of a normative feedback alcohol intervention.Health Psychology, 25(50, 571-579.

Nelson, T. F., & Wechsler, H. (2001). Alcohol and college athletes.Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 33(1), 43-47.

Noble, J. J., Madson, M. B., Mohn, R. S., & Mandracchia, J. T. (2013). Protective behavioral strategies and their relation- ship with negative alcohol consequences among college athletes.Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 7(3), 215-227.

Turrisi, R., Mallett, K. A., Matroleo, N. R., & Larimer, M. E. (2006). Heavy drinking in college students: Who is at risk and what is being done about it?The Journal of General Psychology, 133(4), 401-420.

Widmark, E. M. P. (1981).Principles and applications of medicole- gal alcohol determination. Davis, CA: Biomedical Publications. Yusko, D. A., Buckman, J. F., White, H. R., & Pandina, R. J. (2008). Risk for excessive alcohol use and drinking-related prob- lems in college student athletes.Addictive Behaviors, 33(12),

1546-1556.

ALCOHOL USE AMONG COLLEGE ATHLETES307

Copyright of Substance Use & Misuse is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.