please summarize the important part of the the following paper.

International Journal of Disaster Risk Science (2023) 14:1-13 www.ijdrs.com https://doi.org/10.1007/s 13753-023-00472-3 www.springer.com/13753 ARTICLE Check for updates Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation and Their Linkages with Sustainable Development over the Past 30 Years: A Review Jiahong Wen' . Chengcheng Wan' . Qian Ye2 . Jianping Yan3 . Weijiang Lil Accepted: 30 January 2023/ Published online: 7 February 2023 The Author(s) 2023 Abstract The severe damage and impacts caused by extreme events in a changing climate will not only make the sustainable develop- ment goals difficult to achieve, but also erode the hard-won development gains of the past. This article reviews the major impacts and challenges of disaster and climate change risks on sustainable development, and summarizes the courses and linkages of disaster risk reduction (DRR), climate change adaptation (CCA), and sustainable development over the past 30 years. Our findings show that the conceptual development of DRR actions has gone through three general phases: disaster management in the 1990s, risk management in the 2000s, and resilient management and development in the 2010s. Gradu- ally, CCA has been widely implemented to overcome the adverse effects of climate change. A framework is proposed for tackling climate change and disaster risks in the context of resilient, sustainable development, indicating that CCA is not a subset of DRR while they have similarities and differences in their scope and emphasis. It is crucial to transform governance mechanisms at different levels, so as to integrate CCA and DRR to reduce disaster and climate change risks, and achieve safe growth and a resilient future in the era of the Anthropocene. Keywords Climate change adaptation . Disaster risk reduction . Resilience . Sustainable development goals . United Nations 1 Introduction In December 1989, the United Nations adopted a histori- cal resolution, declaring that the International Decade for Frequent disasters triggered by natural hazards around the Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) would be launched on world have caused huge losses of life and property to human 1 January 1990 (United Nations 1989). Since then, interna- society (CRED and UNDRR 2020). Climate change is fur- tional disaster reduction efforts have been developing vig- ther exacerbating disaster risks, increasing the frequency and orously for more than 30 years. Global actions on climate severity of disaster damage and losses, and seriously hinder- change mitigation and adaptation also go back more than 30 ing our efforts to achieve the sustainable development goals years. In November 1988, the World Meteorological Organi- (SDGs) (IPCC 2022). Disaster risk reduction (DRR) and zation and the United Nations Environment Programme climate change adaptation (CCA) have become significant jointly established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate common challenges facing the international community in Change (IPCC). In December 1990, the 45th session of the era of the Anthropocene. the United Nations General Assembly endorsed resolution 45/212, deciding to establish the Intergovernmental Negotia ating Committee for the United Nations Framework Conven- Weijiang Li tion on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (United Nations 1992a) Iwj @shmu.e with the participation of all member states of the United Nations, to negotiate international conventions on climate School of Environment and Geographical Sciences, change, which was finally adopted in May 1992 (United Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China Nations 1992a). Since then DRR and CCA have become 2 Integrated Risk Governance Project, Beijing 100875, China the core themes for international sustainable development. Rodel Risk Solutions Inc., Toronto, ON MIW1J3, Canada https://www.ipcc.ch/about/history/. 2 SpringerWen et al. Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation and Sustainable Development Some previous studies have considered that CCA is a 2022). To do so, however, there are three major obstacles subset of disaster risk reduction and one of many processes that need to be addressed. within disaster risk reduction (Kelman 2015; Kelman et al. First, there is still a lack of scientific and technological 2015). This may not be the case, however, in many ways, capabilities (including risk monitoring, risk assessment, disaster risk reduction and CCA have overlapping aims and early warning, and so on) and risk governance mechanisms involve similar kinds of intervention (Twigg 2015; Islam to reduce the loss of life and property caused by very large- et al. 2020). Therefore, many studies have suggested that scale disasters globally. The 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake in addressing CCA and DRR together could be more beneficial China caused a total of 87,150 deaths and missing persons; (Clegg et al. 2019), and various studies have also explored in 2010, the Haiti Earthquake killed 222,500 people; the ways and barriers of integrating DRR with CCA, as well as 2015/2016 droughts in India affected 330 million people; mainstreaming both into development (Mitchell et al. 2010; the direct economic losses caused by the 2011 East Japan Florano 2015; Twigg 2015; Hore et al. 2018; Mal et al. 2018; Earthquake and Tsunami were as high as USD 210 billion Gabriel et al. 2021). (CRED and UNDRR 2020). In the context that more than three years of the COVID- Second, EM-DAT does not record many small-scale but 19 pandemic have affected all dimensions of social-eco- recurring disasters caused by extensive risks (minor but logical systems, and the proposed 2015-2030 sustainable recurrent disaster risks) (UNISDR 2015), as well as indirect development agenda has already been implemented halfway, losses. From 2005 to 2014, direct economic losses due to the three main objectives of this study are to: (1) review the extensive risks in 85 countries and territories were equiva- challenges, impacts, and risks of climate change and extreme lent to a total of USD 94 billion (UNISDR 2015). Extensive events; (2) summarize the agenda and concept evolution of risks are responsible for most disaster morbidity and dis- international DRR, CCA, and sustainable development since placement, and represent an ongoing erosion of development 1990; and (3) discuss the governance mechanisms and prac- assets, such as houses, schools, health facilities, and local tices of integration of DRR and CCA-and their linkages infrastructures. However, the cost of extensive risk is not vis- with sustainable and resilient development-employed by ible and tends to be underestimated, as it is usually absorbed the members of the international community over the past by low-income households and communities and small busi- 30 years. Such work could help us find ways to achieve the nesses. In addition, better recording and sharing of disaster goals set by the United Nations' Sendai Framework for Dis- information is needed for disaster loss accounting, forensics, aster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 (United Nations 2015a), and risk modeling (De Groeve et al. 2013; De Groeve et al. the Paris Agreement (United Nations 2015b), and the 2030 2015; Hallegatte 2015; Khadka 2022; UNDRR 2022). Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations Third, in today's crowded and interconnected world, indi- 2015c). rect, cascading impacts can also be significant, and disaster impacts increasingly cascade across geographies and sec- tors (UNDRR 2022). Indirect losses, including output losses (such as business interruptions, supply-chain disruptions, 2 Disaster Risk Reduction and Sustainable and lost production due to capital damages), and macroeco- Development nomic feedbacks, may extend over a longer period of time than the event, and affect a larger spatial scale or different From 2000 to 2019, 7,348 disaster events were recorded economic sectors (Hallegatte 2015). Therefore, indirect, worldwide by EM-DAT (The International Disaster Data- cascading impacts may cause more serious harm to socio- base at the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of economic development in a region or society (Khadka 2022; Disasters) (CRED and UNDRR 2020). These disasters UNDRR 2022). claimed approximately 1.23 million lives, an annual aver- age of 60,000 lost lives, and affected a total of over 4 bil- lion people (many on more than one occasion) (CRED and 3 Climate Change Risks and Sustainable UNDRR 2020). These disasters also led to approximately Development USD 2.97 trillion in direct economic losses worldwide. If the expected annual losses induced by natural hazards were The best estimate of total human-caused global surface tem- shared equally among the world's population, it would be perature increase from 1850-1900 to 2010-2019 is around equivalent to an annual loss of almost USD 70 for each 1.1 .C, and each of the last four decades has been succes- individual of working age, or two months' income for peo- sively warmer than any decade that preceded it since 1850 ple living below the poverty line (UNISDR 2015). Clearly, (IPCC 2021; WMO 2021). If the temperature continues to sustainable development cannot be achieved without taking rise at the current rate, global warming could reach 1.5 .C account of disaster risk reduction (UNDP 2004; UNDER between 2030 and 2052 (IPCC 2018). Increasing risks 2 SpringerInternational Journal of Disaster Risk Science associated with health, livelihoods, food security, water sup- and uncertain schemes of decision making. Due to the deep ply, human security, and economic growth are all expected uncertainty of the changes, over- or under-adaptation can in a rapidly changing climate (Carleton and Hsiang 2016; occur, leading policymakers and planners to make subopti- IPCC 2018). The Sixth Assessment Report of the Inter- mal decisions (Linstone 2004; Kwakkel et al. 2016; Marchau governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC AR6) has et al. 2019; Webber and Samaras 2022). identified over 130 key risks (KRs) that may become severe under particular conditions of climate hazards, exposure, and vulnerability. These key risks are represented in eight 4 Agenda and Evolution of International so-called Representative Key Risk (RKR) clusters of key Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate risks relating to low-lying coastal systems; terrestrial and Change Adaptation, and Sustainable ocean ecosystems; critical physical infrastructure, networks, Development and services; living standards; human health; food security; water security; and peace and mobility (IPCC 2022). The A landmark year for DRR, CCA, and sustainable develop- international scientific community has warned that without ment was 2015 because three important events occurred quick actions on the following three urgent issues, the severe in that year-the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk damage and impacts of climate change and extreme events Reduction 2015-2030, the Sustainable Development will not only put the achievement of the SDGs out of reach Goals (SDGs), and the Paris Agreement under the UNF- but also erode the hard-won development gains of the past. CCC (United Nations 2015a; United Nations 2015b; United The first issue is that as human-induced climate change, Nations 2015c) were adopted by the international commu- including more frequent and intense extreme events, has nity. Looking back in history can help us understand the gov- affected and will continue to threaten the lives and liveli- ernance of international DRR and CCA, and their important hoods of millions to billions of people, the challenges of how processes and context (Fig. 1). to significantly reduce the emerging risks of climate change are enormous ((IPCC 2018, 2022; Rising et al. 2022). Cur- 4.1 International Disaster Risk Reduction Action rently, climate-related disasters account for more than 80% Framework and Concept Evolution of disasters caused by natural hazards (UNDRR 2021). Around the world 3.3-3.6 billion people live in areas of In 1987, the 42nd session of the United Nations General high vulnerability to climate change (IPCC 2022). Assembly passed a resolution and decided to designate The second issue is that under higher warming scenarios the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster (for example, 3-4 .C) it is almost certain that Planet Earth Reduction (IDNDR) (United Nations 1987), calling on gov- will cross tipping points, leading to irreversible changes in ernments from all over the world to actively participate in ecosystems or climate patterns, which will significantly limit and support this action. The main goal of the IDNDR was our ability to adapt (Steffen et al. 2018; Lenton et al. 2019; to minimize the losses of life and property, as well as the Ritchie et al. 2021). The challenges of how to address the impacts and damage to the economy and society caused by adaptation limits that are already being confronted across disasters. In 1999, the United Nations International Strat- the world will only increase (Future Earth et al. 2022). egy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) and the UNISDR For example, in high-emission scenarios, week-long heat Secretariat were established as the successor arrangements extremes that break records by three or more standard devia- for the IDNDR to be responsible for the implementation of tions are two to seven times more probable in 2021-2050 and DRR plans and strategies among UN member states, with a three to 21 times more probable in 2051-2080, compared to view to further strengthening international disaster reduction the last three decades (Fischer et al. 2021). Building codes in efforts. In 2019, the Secretariat changed its name to the UN many areas have to be modified and even redesigned Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). The third issue is the lack of scientific research to bet- The First World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduc- ter understand the mechanisms of systemic risks caused tion held at Yokohama, Japan in 1994 adopted the Yoko- by climate change in the context of deep uncertainty. For hama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World (IDNDR example, record-shattering extremes-nearly impossible in 1994), reiterating the focus of the IDNDR. The Yokohama the absence of warming-are likely to occur in the com- Plan of Action urged the incorporation of disaster preven- ing decades (Fischer et al. 2021), which may lead to the tion, preparedness, early warning, recovery, local capacity emergence of systemic risks with large-scale, non-linear, building, and improvement of disaster response mechanisms and cascading consequences in socioeconomic systems (Hel- bing 2012; Renn et al. 2019). Deep uncertainty is mainly reflected in three aspects, including uncertain scenarios of climate change, uncertain consequences of decision making, https://www.under.org/about-under/history. 2 SpringerFig.1 Importanteventsofdis aster risk reduction (DRR). cli- 2021-2022 . mate change adaptation (CCA). and sustainable development since 1990.1PCC.'Intergov- 2015 @ ' ernmental Panel on Climate . Change. Source Modied from . Mal et al. (2018) 2013-2014 . 2012 $7) ' 2010 I 2007 ' C 2005 ' 2001 - 2000 ' 1999 0 1995 ' 1994 w I 1992 - 1990 5?? c 1990-1999 ' into national policies in order to reduce the impacts of disasters. In 2005. the Second World Conference on Natural Dis aster Reduction held at Kobe. Hyogo. Japan. adopted the Hyogo Declaration and the Hyogo Framework for Action 20052015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Com munities to Disasters (United Nations 2005). The goals of the Hyogo Framework were to substantially reduce the loss of human. socioeconomic. and environmental assets of com munities and countries from disasters by 2015 by integrating DRR into strategies and planning processes. and by promot ing the effective role of local knowledge. resilience building. and climate adaptation. The action framework includes an expected outcome. three strategic goals. and ve priorities for actions (Fig. 2). In March 2015. the Third World Conference on Natua ral Disaster Reduction held in Sendai. Japan. adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 20132030 (United Nations 2015a). The Sendai Framework set out an expected outcome and seven quantitative goals to be {a Springer Wen et al. Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation and Sustainable Development IPCC Sixth Assessment Report The Third World Conference on Disaster Reduction endorsed the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) The Paris Agreement (CoP21) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report IPCC Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation Cancun Adaptation Framework IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Bali Action Plan The Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction endorsed the Hyogo Framework tor Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters IPCC Third Assessment Report The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction IPCC Second Assessment Report The First World Conference on Disaster Reduction endorsed the Yokohama Strategy and its Plan of Action adopted at the World Conference The Rio Earth Summit (the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) IPCC First Assessment Report The International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction achieved in the following 15 years. together with four priorir ties for actionsunderstanding disaster risk. strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk. investing in DRR for resilience. and enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to \"Build Back Better" in recovery. rehabilitation. and reconstruction (Fig. 3). The endorsement of the Sendai Framework opened a new chapter for DRR and sustainable development. Over the past 30 years. in general. the development of DRR and related goals and priorities for action can be divided into three stages of disaster management in the 19905. disaster risk management in the 2000s. and resil ience management and development in the 2010s. The three stages reect the key characteristics and important conceptual development of DRR actions at different stages rather than being separated from each other. Disaster man, agement focuses on disastercentered approaches (Fig. 4). and countermeasures are focused on disaster preparedness and response. Disaster risk management is to prevent new disaster risk. reduce existing disaster risk. and manage International Journal ofDisaster Risk Science The more effective integration of disaster risk considerations Into sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels. 2 Identify, assess and monitor disaster risk and enhance early warning. 1. Ensure that disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation levels. Expected Outcome The substantial reduction of disaster losses, in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries. Strategic Goals The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards. 3. Use knowledge. innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programs. Priorities for Action 4 Reduce the 5. Strengthen underlying risk disaster factors preparedness for effective response at all levels. Fig.2 The Hyogo Framework for Action 200572015: Expected outcome. strategic goals. and priorities for action (United Nations 2005) communities and countries. Substantially Substantially Reduce direct Substantially reduce reduce the disaster reduce disaster f economic damage to critical global number o loss in infrastructure and disaster aSCISd relation to disruption of basic mortality. people. global gross services, among domestic them health and PFDdUG'K educational {GDP}. facilities. Expected Outcome The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives. livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses. Strategic Goals Substantially increase the Substantially enhance Substantially increase the availability of and number Uf international _ countries with cooperation to 353335 to mum-hazard national and developing early warning systems local disaster countries and disaster risk risk reduction through . f t' d strategies. adequate and m orma ion an sustainable assessments to support. people. Priorities for Action Strengthening disaster risk QOVEII'IEI'ICE ID manage disaster risk. Understanding disaster risk. Investing in disaster risk FEClLl DUO for resilien oe. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response. and it) \"Build Back Better\" in recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction. Fig.3 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 20152030: Expected outcome. strategic goals. and priorities for action (United Nations 2015a) residual risk on the basis of riskebased decisions. It emphae sizes riskcentered approaches (Fig. 4). and prevention and reduction are superior to response and relief. Resilience management (Fig. 4) is a new paradigm. which puts the emphasis on enhancing the ability of a system. community. or society to resist. absorb, accommodate. adapt to. trans form. and recover from the effects of a hazard (predictable or unpredictable) in a timely and efcient manner. including 3 https:ffvvwvtnundrr.oigfterminologyfresilience. through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions through risk management.3 These ideas are embodied in the three World Conferences on Natural Disaster Reduction held by the United Nations and the adopted disaster risk reduction strategies and action frameworks. The 19905 coincided with the IDNDR. which emphasized the enhancement of national dis aster management capabili ties in disaster prevention. mitigation. preparedness. and relief. The Yokohama Strategy urged the enhancement of disaster management for achieving sustainable development. @ Springer 6 Wen et al. Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation and Sustainable Development Disaster Management Analysis Risk Management Flaming .2: Re5111ence :53" O '9 5: {3 Resilience Management Fig.4 A comparison between disaster management. risk management. and resilience management and claried that to achieve the goals of the [DNDR. disaster prevention. mitigation. and preparedness were more effective than disaster relief (IDNDR 1994). The 2000s witnessed the transition from disaster management to risk manage ment. The Hyogo Framework emphasized that the focus of DRR should shift to disaster risk management and that DRR should be a national and a local priority and incorporated into national development policies (United Nations 2005). In the 20108. the concept of the DRR eld further shifted to resilience building. Researchers and practitioners at differ ent levels worked a lot on the theory and practice of resil ience. and gradually resilient management and development became an international consensus (Cutter et al. 2013; Florin and Linkov 2016; Gencer 201?). 4.2 Climate Change Risk Assessment and Adaptation Over the past 30 years. the [FCC has issued a series of com prehensive assessment reports about the state of scientic. technical. and socioeconomic knowledge on climate change impacts. risks. and adaptation. The adaptation negotiations under the UNFCCC have also made signicant progress. and gradually. CCA has been widely implemented to overcome the adverse effects of climate change at all levels. 4.2.1 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Reports Since 1988, every 67 years. nearly a thousand scientists around the world have engaged in various elds ofclimate change and socioeconomic and sustainable development to provide policymakers with a comprehensive explana tion of the current international scientic community's latest understanding ofclimate system changes in so far six assessment reports (see Fig. 1). Since 1990. IPCC's six climate change assessment reports have made fruitful 4Q Springer evaluations of the scientic progress of climate system changes. the impacts and risks ofclimate change on natural and socioeconomic systems. and the options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change. The reports have become authoritative documents for the international community's combat of climate change, pro viding a scientic basis for the negotiations ofthe UNF CCC. and an important scientic basis for governments to formulate policies and take actions on climate change miti gation and adaptation (Qin 2018). In order to assess the relationship between climate change and extreme weather events, and their impacts on the sustainable development of society. the [PCC issued a special report on \"Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Cli mate Change Adaptation\" in February 2012 (IPCC 2012). The report pointed out that the extent of damage caused by extreme weather to elements at risk depends not only on the extreme events. but also on the exposure and vulnere ability of the socialecological systems. The report also systematically explains the paths and methods of disaster risk management to adapt to climate change. Adaptation is an important part of the [PCC reports. The [FCC Fifth Assessment Report (ARS) summarizes the adaptation needs. options. plans. and measures ofclimate change. and assesses the role of adaptation. the limitations of adaptation. and the transformation of adaptation in four chapters. The report gives a variety of adaptation measr ures. which can be grouped into three categoriesmeas ures to reduce exposure. incremental adaptation measures. and transformational adaptation measures (IPCC 2014). The [FCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) Working Group I] (WGII) report describes the current status of adaptation and its benet. future adaptation options and their feasir bility. adaptation limitations. and maladaptation and how to avoid it. The feasibility of 23 adaptation measures is evaluated. which shows adaptation is subject to hard and soft limits (IPCC 2022). International Journal ofDisaster Risk Science 4.2.2 Adaptation Negotiations Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Damage and loss associated with climate change impacts have emerged as key issues underpinning climate change adaptation at the global level during recent climate change negotiations under the UNFCCC (Prabhakar et al. 2015). Along with the rise in climaterelated hazards. and the impacts and risks of fastonset extremes and slowonset changes (such as sea level rise) in the climate system. adape tation started attracting more attention at COP 10 (Confer ence of the Parties in 2004). then received successive boosts from the adoption of the Bali Action Plan in 2007r and the following COPs in Cancun (Mexico) in 2010 and others leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement (Shaw et al. 2016) (see Fig. 1). In December 2015. the Paris Climate Change Conference reached a series of results centered on the Paris Agreement. which became an important historical and binding interna tional framework aiming to strengthen the global response to the threat ofclimate change (United Nations 2015b).The Paris Agreement puts forward three goals: (1) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 C above preeindustrial levels and strive ing to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 C above the preindustrial levels; (2) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development. in a manner that does not threaten food production; and (3) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate resilient development. In terms of adaptation and reduction of the damage and loss caused by climate change. global adaptation goals have been proposed to enhance adaptability. strengthen resilience. and reduce vulnerability to climate change. Over the past 30 years. the adaptation negotiations under the UNFCCC can be roughly divided into three stages of early slow progress. equal emphasis on adaptation and miti gation. and enhanced adaptation action. The climate negotiae tions were characterized by \"emphasis on mitigation. neglect of adaptation\" in the early stage. After the 2007' Bali Road map adopted by the 13th Conference of the Parties (COP 13) that put equal emphasis on mitigation and adaptation. the adaptationrelated agenda and its importance were increased under the UNFCCC negotiation regime. The 2010 Cancun Adaptation Framework and the 2015 Paris Agreement put forward specic action frameworks to enhance global adap tation actions. and to establish an international governance and mechanism for global adaptation to climate change. which laid a good foundation for enhancing climate resil ience. reducing vulnerability. and achieving the goals of the UNFCCC (Tao 2014; Chen et al. 2016; Chen 2020). 4.3 Linkages of Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation, and the Sustainable Development Goals In 1987. the Report of the World Commission on Environ ment and Development \"Our Common Future\" put forward the strategy of sustainable development. marking the birth of a new concept of development (WCED 1987'). In June 1992. the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also known as the Earth Summit) adopted a series of important documentsthe Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (also known as the Earth Charter); Agenda 21; the Framework Convention on Climate Change; and the Convention on Biological Diversity. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertication was adopted on 17 June 1994. The Earth Summit established a road map of sustainable development with harmonious coex istence between humans and nature (United Nations 1992b; CicinSain 1996). A considerable incentive for rethinking disaster risk as an integral part of the development process comes from the aim of achieving the goals laid out in the Millennium Declaration. The Declaration sets forth a road map for human development supported by 191 nations in 2000 (UNDP 2004). Following the end of the 20002015 Millennium Development Goals (United Nations 2000). the United Nations Development Summit in September 2015 unanimously adopted the draft resolution \"Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development." submitted by the 69th session of the United Nations General Assembly (United Nations 2015c). The SDGs in the United Nations 2030 Agenda replaced the Millennium Development Goals launched by the United Nations at the beginning of the 21st century. The agenda includes 17 SDGs and 169 associated tar gets. These development goals all closely interact and influence climate change and disaster risks. For example. Goal 9 building resilient infrastructure. Goal 11 building inclusive. safe. resilient. and sustainable cities and human settlements. and Goal 13 taking urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. all are directly related to DRR and CCA. Many of these 169 associated targets also involve reducing disaster risks and disaster impacts. For example. one of the specic targets of Goal 1 is to build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate, related extreme events and other economic. social. and environmental shocks and disasters by 2030. Disasters put development at risk. and losses caused by climate change and extreme events may severely hinder many countries Q Springer Wen et al. Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation and Sustainable Development Fig. 5 A framework for address- ing disaster and climate change Resilience, Sustainable Development risks in the context of resilient, sustainable development Integrated Risk Management Management Emergency Climate Change Climate Risk Disaster Risk Climate Change Mitigation Adaptation Management Management Ecosystem Weather/Climate Other -related Hazards Natural Disasters Hazards from achieving SDGs. At the same time, the realization 5 Discussion of the SDGs will also help reduce human vulnerability to climate change and disasters, thereby greatly reducing In many ways, DRR and CCA have overlapping aims and disaster risks. involve similar kinds of intervention (Begum et al. 2014; Climate change adaptation and DRR have similari- Forino et al. 2015; Twigg 2015; Amaratunga et al. 2017). ties and differences in their scope and emphasis (Twigg People and ecosystems across the world are already con- 2015; Clegg et al. 2019). The common aim of CCA and fronted with limits to adaptation, and if the planet warms DRR is to manage the risk induced by weather/climate- beyond 1.5 .C or even 2 C, more widespread breaching related hazards, including extreme events and climate- of adaptation limits is expected (Forino et al. 2015; Twigg related creeping environmental changes, which is part of 2015). climate risk management (see Fig. 4). Their difference is Addressing climate change may have the potential to cre- that DRR not only deals with hydrometeorological disaster ate or exacerbate other development concerns (Kelman et al. risk closely related to climate change, but also manages 2015). Large dams might contribute to climate change miti- risks caused by other natural hazards, such as earthquakes gation and adaptation through reduced dependence on fossil and volcanic eruptions (Twigg 2015). In addition, DRR fuels and regulating floods. But large dams tend to increase focuses more on reducing the potential losses of people flood risk over the long term in a process termed "risk trans- and assets. Climate change adaptation also has its focus ference" (Etkin 1999). Seawalls and infrastructural devel- areas, such as the impact of climate change on ecosystems opment along coastlines may also induce changes in water and biodiversity, and infectious diseases and health (IPCC currents, destruction of natural ecosystems, and increased 2022). According to the Adaptation Gap Report 2022 or shifted erosion from protected to unprotected areas (Dahl (UNEP 2022), CCA actions are currently mainly focused et al. 2017; Rahman and Hickey 2019; Piggott-Mckellar on agriculture, water, ecosystems, and cross-cutting sec- et al. 2020; Simon et al. 2020). Seawalls may effectively tors. Disaster risk reduction and CCA are two major areas reduce impacts to people and assets in the short term but of integrated risk management (Fig. 5), thus both should may also result in lock-ins and increase exposure to coastal be joined within the integrated risk management that is an hazards in the long term unless they are integrated into a important pillar and field of resilient, sustainable develop- long-term climate risk management plan. Although fire sup- ment. Under the framework of resilient development, there pression in naturally fire-adapted ecosystems prevents fire are two areas that are closely related to climate change and damage, such action reduces the space for natural processes, DRR, that is, emergency management and climate change thus reducing the ecosystem's resistance to climate change mitigation (Fig. 5). The synergistic effects of integrated and its ecosystem service value (Ruffault and Mouillot 2015; risk management, emergency management, and climate Hope et al. 2016). change mitigation will effectively ensure safe growth and Therefore, DRR and CCA should be addressed together resilient development. under integrated risk management to overcome limits and 2 SpringerInternational Journal of Disaster Risk Science Fig. 6 A scheme showing inter- national funding mechanisms International Funding Mechanisms for target countries Climate-related DRR-related Development- Humanitarian Funds Funds related Funds Funds Agencies' Country Programs Target Projects Projects Projects Projects Country maladaptation, and optimize the use of limited resources still addressed by two sets of organizations in China. In the (Mitchell et al. 2010; Twigg 2015; Flood et al. 2022). Thus, Philippines, DRR and CCA are operationalized independently the integration of CCA and DRR can contribute to achiev- of one another (Florano 2015; De Leon and Pittock 2017). ing the goals of international frameworks such as the SDGs There are two separate laws on climate change and disaster (Kelman and Gaillard 2010; UN DESA 2014; Kelman 2017; risk reduction and management-the Climate Change Act of Clegg et al. 2019), the Sendai Framework, and the Paris 2009 and the Philippine National Disaster Risk Reduction and Agreement (Amaratunga et al. 2017) Management Act of 2010, respectively. This is also the case in However, there are many factors that hinder successful national level arrangements in the UK, where DRR and CCA integration of CCA and DRR (Amaratunga et al. 2017; Sei- are managed by separate government departments (Dias et al. dler et al. 2018; Dias et al. 2020; Islam et al. 2020). Bar- 2018; Clegg et al. 2019). riers include poor communication between organizations, To change this situation, effective governance mechanisms, coordination challenges, lack of political willingness, lack such as policy, agreement, culture, leadership, and coordina of capacity among actors and institutions, policy gaps, tion need to be established among international organizations, mismatches, different funding systems, fund shortages, as well as between international organizations and target and so on. Disaster risk reduction and CCA are frequently countries, while countries also need to establish overarch- addressed, studied, and analyzed independently (O'Brien ing national risk governance systems (Fig. 7). Thus, tailored and Li 2006; Ireland 2010; Kelman et al. 2015; Chmutina country programs can be established through international risk et al. 2016; Clegg et al. 2019), separated by institutional and governance solutions, and implemented in target countries by a administrative boundaries (Schipper and Pelling 2006; Kel- unified mechanism under the national risk governance system. man 2017; Pilli-Sihvola 2020). For historical and political Moreover, a wide range of climate change impacts and reasons, internationally, the way we are currently working disaster risks (especially the cascading and systemic risks) addresses climate change, DRR, development-related pro- are understudied or challenging to quantify, and are missing jects, and humanitarian relief separately (Fig. 6). Interna- from current evaluations of climate change and other disaster tional funding mechanisms establish and implement inde- risks to lives and assets (Mamuji and Etkin 2019; Mcglade pendent projects of CCA, DRR, and so on in target countries et al. 2019; Rising et al. 2022). Importantly, integrated risk through international organizations (such as different agen- and resilience management is about managing known risks cies of the United Nations), resulting in segmented practices. but also about preparing for the unpredictable (Pirani and At the national level, CCA and DRR are also frequently Tolkoff 2015). Thus, better data, actionable information, and handled independently, separated by institutional and admin- relevant knowledge on climate change and disaster risk are istrative boundaries (Schipper and Pelling 2006; Kelman 2017; needed to promote the integration of CCA and DRR (Mysiak Dias et al. 2018; Clegg et al. 2019). In China, for example, the et al. 2018; Zuccaro et al. 2020). Fourteenth Five Year Plan for National Comprehensive Disas- ter Prevention and Reduction (2021-2025) was formulated by the National Disaster Reduction Commission, which is only a 6 Conclusion deliberationy and thus it is difficult to promote the imple- mentation of the plan. In 2022, 17 national departments jointly This study reviews the major impacts and challenges of dis- issued the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy 2035, aster and climate change risks on sustainable development, with the Ministry of Ecology and Environment as the leading summarizes the important events and evolution of interna- department. Climate change adaptation and DRR efforts are tional disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation 2 Springer10 Wen et aI. Disaster Risk Reduction, ClimateChange Adaptation and Sustainable Development Fig. 7 Integrated risk govern ance solution among inter national organizations and countries Integrated Risk Governance Solution Development- relatad Funds Agreement between Intl. : agencies and the g "nun-nu. Individual Agency Contributions Functioning National Risk Governance System Individual Agency ContributIons individual Agency Individual Agency Contributions Contributions over the past 30 years, and reviews the linkages of DRR and CCA to sustainable development. The three main conclue sions are: (1) Disasters caused by both intensive and extensive dis- aster risks have a huge impact on lives and livelihoods. Indirect losses and cascading effects may cause even more serious damage to the socioeconomic devel- opment of a region or a society. Most disasters trig gered by natural hazards are related to weather/climate events. Especially under a changing climate, compound events and systemic risks are increasing, and record shattering extremes are likely to occur in the coming decades, which will signicantly limit our ability to adapt. (2) Over the past 30 years, the evolution of paradigms in DRR actions can be roughly divided into three stagesi disaster management in the 1990s, disaster risk man agement in the 2000s, and resilient management and development in the 20105. These ideas are embodied in the three World Conferences on Natural Disaster Reduction held by the United Nations and the adopted disaster reduction strategies and action frameworks. The adaptation negotiations under the UNFCCC over the past 30 years also can be roughly divided into three stages of early slow progress, equal emphasis on adap~ tation and mitigation, and enhanced adaptation action. Climate change adaptation has been widely carried out to overcome the adverse effects of climate change. The integrated risk management community has also learned the current status of adaptation and its benet, future adaptation options and their feasibility, adaptae tion limitations, and maladaptation and how to avoid it. (3) This article proposes a framework for addressing climate change and disaster risks in the context of resilient, sustainable development. Climate change {a Springer adaptation is not a subset of DRR, and they have both similarities and differences in their scope and emphasis. Disaster risk reduction and CCA should be joined under the integrated risk management that is an important pil- lar of resilient and sustainable development. Under the umbrella of resilient development, there are two areas that are closely related to climate change and DRR disaster management and climate change mitigation. The synergistic effects of integrated risk management, emergency management, and climate change mitiga tion will effectively support safe growth and resilient development. To successfully integrate CCA and DRR, it is urgently needed to transform governance mechanisms, and to strengthen cooperation among international organizations, as well as between international organizations and countries, while countries also need to establish overarching national risk governance systems. Moreover, better data, actionable information, and relevant knowledge are needed for under~ standing climate change and disaster risks in a context of deep uncertainty. The severe effects of the COVID~19 pandemic on our health and socioeconomic well~being are a stark warning of the dangers of insufcient actions, prevention, and prepar ednessibut people and societies can adopt new behaviors when the problems and situations are changing. In the con- text of climate emergency, the feasibility and effectiveness of adaptation measures will decrease with increasing warming. It is urgently needed to leverage the synergies of CCA and DRR, together with climate change mitigation and disas- ter management, in order to prevent new risks, reduce and mitigate existing vulnerabilities and risks, and to realize the goals of the Sendai Framework, the Paris Agreement, and the Sustainable Development Goals. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science Acknowledgments This work was supported by the National Natu- Dahl, K.A., E. Spanger-Siegfried, A. Caldas, and S. Udvardy. 2017. ral Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 42171080, 41771540), Effective inundation of continental united states communities with the National Social Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 21 st century sea level rise. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 18ZDA105), and the Humanities and Social Sciences Program of the 5: Article 37. Ministry of Education (Grant No. 21 YJC630146). De Groeve, T., K. Poljansek, and D. Ehrlich. 2013. Recording disas- ter losses. Recommendations for a European Research. European Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- Commission, Joint Research Centre scientific and policy reports. bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long De Groeve, T., C. Corbane, and D. Ehrlich. 2015. Guidance for record- as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, ing and sharing disaster damage and loss data: Towards the devel- provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes opment of operational indicators to translate the Sendai Frame were made. The images or other third party material in this article are work into action. Report by the European Commission, Joint included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated Research Centre. EUR 27192. Luxembourg: Publications Office otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in of the European Union. the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not De Leon, E.G., and J. Pittock. 2017. Integrating climate change adap- permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will tation and climate-related disaster risk-reduction policy in devel- need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a oping countries: A case study in the Philippines. Climate and copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Development 9(5): 471-478. Dias, N., D. Amaratunga, and R. Haigh. 2018. Challenges associated with integrating CCA and DRR in the UK - A review on the existing legal and policy background. Procedia Engineering 212: 78-985 References Dias, N., D. Amaratunga, R. Haigh, G. Clegg, and C. Malalgoda. 2020. Critical factors that hinder integration of CCA and DRR: Amaratunga, D., R. 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