The studies of top- down initiatives in organizations reveal: a. Top-down control is more effective than bottom-up political initiatives which may rely on mobilization of grass root groups to assert their interests. b. It is a mistake to ignore the "lowerarchy" - partisans and groups who find ways to resist, divert, undermine, ignore or overthrow innovative plans. c. Leaders confident that new programs are progressive, effective and good for everyone are destined to failure when they do not take into account possible political battles. d. All of the above