Tourism Impact Assessment Report MASAI MARA NATIONAL RESERVE IN KENYA Kenya is one of the world's most popular tourist destinations. The country is endowed with attractive tourist sites, rich culture, striking geographical diversity and landscapes ranging from beautiful beaches, to animal parks and archeological sites. The Masai Mara National Reserve is one of its top tourist attractions and the most popular game park. Each year the Masai Mara National Reserve is visited by thousands of tourists who go to watch the exceptional population of game and the annual migration of zebra and wildebeest i.e. The \"Great Migration\" which takes place every year from July to October when millions of wildebeest and zebra migrate from the Serengeti in Tanzania. ANIMALS & BIRDS During the wildebeest migration you will see thousands of animals. The plains are full of wildebeest, zebra, impala, topi, giraffe, Thomson's gazelle. Also regularly seen are leopards, lions, hyenas, cheetah, jackal and bat-eared foxes. Black rhino are a little shy and hard to spot but are often seen at a distance. Hippos and Nile crocodiles are abundant in the Mara River. They lay in wait for a meal as the wildebeest cross on their annual quest to find new pastures. Every July (or sometimes August), the wildebeest travel over 600 miles (960km) from Tanzania's Serengeti plains, northwards to the Masai Mara and across the Mara River. In October or November, once they have feasted and the grass has all but gone, they turn around and go back the other way. The Mara birds come in various sizes and color including common but beautiful ones like the lilac breasted roller and plenty of large species like eagles, vultures and storks. There are nearly 53 different birds of prey. NATURE OF TOURISM IMPACTS ON MASAI MARA NATIONAL RESERVE Problem Statement Increasing human population, mobility and participation in recreational activities has exerted pressure on available resources of land and water in the world. This threatens not only nature but also recreation quality (Van der Zee 1992). Wildlife viewing and close behavior inspection has grown rapidly hence increase in mobility in the wildlife parks. This has significantly affected the growth of natural vegetation in the park (Onyeanusi, 1986). Physical impacts of tourism development Construction activities and infrastructure development Development of tourism facilities such as accommodation, water supplies, restaurants and recreation facilities can involve sand mining, beach and sand dune erosion, soil erosion and Tourism Impact Assessment Report extensive paving. In addition, road and airport construction can lead to land degradation and loss of wildlife habitats and deterioration of scenery. The building and constructions of parking lots, accommodation and recreation facilities at the Masai Mara have caused habitat loss in the reserve. Deforestation and intensified or unsustainable use of land Construction of ski resort accommodation and facilities frequently requires clearing forested land. These activities can cause severe disturbance and erosion of the local ecosystem, even destruction in the long term. The trees that were cleared at the Masai Mara to avail space for accommodation facilities have left part of the reserve bare and vulnerable to action of both wind and water erosion. Trampling Tourists using the same trail over and over again trample the vegetation and soil, eventually causing damage that can lead to loss of biodiversity among other impacts. Damage can be more extensive when visitors frequently stray off established trails. These can be clearly depicted by the trail truck lines in the Masai Mara reserve that have been used over the years. Trampling causes the vegetation to break, reduce vigor, reduce regeneration, lose ground cover and change the composition of the species. This will consequently make the soil to lose organic matter, reduce in macro porosity, decrease in air and water permeability, and experience increased runoff and consequent accelerated erosion. Alteration of ecosystems by tourist activities Habitat can be degraded by tourism leisure activities. Wildlife viewing could bring about stress for the animals and change their natural behavior when approached. Safaris and wildlife watching activities have a degrading effect on habitat as they often are accompanied by the noise and commotion created by tourists as they chase wild animals in their trucks and aircraft. The zebras and impala at the Mara are usually uneasy when they spot the tourists and this interferes with their activity as they stop feeding so as to be on the lookout. The black rhino goes into hiding when it spots the tourists. In some cases, such interferences lead to animals becoming so disturbed that at times they neglect their young or fail to mate. Impact of Off Road driving (ORD) Research has found that off-road driving is a significant problem in the Masai Mara Reserve, which is affecting the habit and habitat of wildlife, and the presence of many hotels and lodges in and around the reserve are changing food intake of birds. In the Masai Mara Reserve about 30 percent of the road and tracks increased from 1991 to 1999. Road and tracks cover was about nine square kilometers in 1999 which contains about five square kilometers of totally barren land due to the off road driving (Walpole et al., 2003). In 1991 there were approximately 189 square kilometers of roads in the Reserve which reached to approximately 223 square kilometers, and tracks increased from 1,656 to 2,167 during the same period. The reserve's land is now covered by the road networks about 4,300 kilometers in length at noticeable levels. Physical damage to the vegetation, conflict with the local people, as well as disturbances to the wildlife, landscape, and cultural settings are the common off Tourism Impact Assessment Report road driving problems to the reserve. Special rules have been set up to control the problem (RDNP2005). Tourist and vehicle entry in the park Over the past decade, the recorded visitor entries to the Masai Mara National Reserve are increasing annually at the rate of 9 percent per year. In 1980, the total visitor entry was 114000, which reached 255000 in 1990. On an average the visitor stays in the reserve for about 2.5 days. After 1990 visitors entry rate is not constant every year but the trend is not negative. Increase in visitors increases the number of vehicles hence has a great impact on the reserve. In 1980, the number of vehicles entering was 17160 and in 1990 the same approximately doubled and reached 33110. After 1991 due to some external factors such as Gulf war, fears of AIDS, and terrorist attacks and some other reasons, the number of visitors has fluctuated (Washilwa, 1996). But since 1995, the flow has been increasing. Airstrips and Their Effects The existing road conditions of the Masai Mara are not good and some visitors prefer to travel via airplane to the reserve. Within the Masai Mara, including the area outside of the reserve, there are eight airstrips handled by hotels. The tourist flow via airplanes is eight to 10% of the total annual entry. In most of the cases, their safari vehicles are driven from Nairobi. These visitors do not prefer to be in-groups in safari and drive so that there are two to three persons using one vehicle. Off the road driving and high speed driving are very common with these passengers because they stay for a short period and they are eager to see many animals within the shortest possible time. The area occupied by the eight airstrips is noticeable. The landing and take-off activities may have an effect on wild animals within a significant distance. Socio-Cultural Impacts The socio-cultural impacts of tourism refer to the effects on host communities associated with tourists, and interaction with the tourism industry in general. For various reasons, host communities often are the weaker party in interactions with their guests and service providers, leveraging any influence they might have. These influences are not always apparent, as they are difficult to measure, depend on value judgments and are often indirect or hard to identify. The impacts arise when tourism brings about changes in value systems and behavior and thereby threatens indigenous identity. Furthermore, changes often occur in community structure, family relationships, collective traditional life styles, ceremonies and morality. But tourism can also generate positive impacts as it can serve as a supportive force for peace, foster pride in cultural traditions and help avoid urban relocation by creating local jobs. As often happens when different cultures meet, socio-cultural impacts are ambiguous: the same objectively described impacts are seen as beneficial by some groups, and are perceived as negative by other stakeholders. Tourism Impact Assessment Report Park-People Interaction and Tourist Inflow Nature, culture, the environment, and development are closely related. The customs, norms, behavior, and values of the society are guided by nature. Tourists are interested in watching or feeling close to these inherent social phenomena in the wilderness of nature. At the Masai Mara National Reserve and surrounding group ranches it was observed that people look upon tourists as the principal source of foreign currency for the state. They are equally concerned with the negative impact caused by tourism on wild animals and their cultural values. A new concept in the field of tourism and nature conservation is eco-tourism. This is a practice of tourism without disturbing the nature or watching nature without disturbance. In the case of the Masai Mara tourists can travel by light vehicles. Economic Impacts of Tourism The tourism industry generates substantial economic benefits to both host countries and tourists' home countries. Especially in developing countries, one of the primary motivations for a region to promote itself as a tourism destination is the expected economic development brought about by foreign exchange. In the Masai Mara National reserve in Narok district of Kenya the primary problems are related to the inadequate life support system in place and the secondary problems are associated with the infrastructure in the area. The flow of tourists to the park can be economically beneficial but in terms of wildlife conservation it could be detrimental. The infrastructure development for the tourists including roads within the reserve, hotels, resorts and camping have negative impact on the wildlife habitat (Gakahu, 1992). There is growing population pressure from agriculturists and livestock keepers around the park and in wildlife areas. Agriculture is increasing even in marginal areas that are part of a wildlife habitat. At the same time, these people experience considerable damage to crop and livestock from wildlife Tourist flow and its effect on the reserve Tourism in the Masai Mara reserve has been economically successful. Out of the 57 protected areas, which include inland and marine national parks and reserves, Masai Mara receives the highest number of visitors not only in Kenya but in East Africa (Muthee, 1992). An available report shows that average annual tourist entry in the park is around 200,000 (Gakahu, 1992). Development of tourist facilities in the reserve has been quick in response to the growing number of visitors. Increased tourist facilities have caused the loss of habitat and naturalness of the area. Lodges have garbage and sewage disposal problems. Garbage attracts carrion-eaters such as hyenas, baboons, velvet monkeys and marabou storks, some scavengers, such as hyenas, may change their natural feeding habits and became permanent garbage feeders. Tourism Impact Assessment Report Hotels in the park The increase in visitors at the Masai Mara means good business for the hotels in the park. Unfortunately, increase in visitors means a consequent increase in vehicles and visitors' accommodation. Managing tourism and assessing visitor capacity of the reserve has not been done yet (Henry, 1992) and this is an issue that cannot just be overlooked. IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Impacts must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis Interactions resulting from tourism are difficult to predict on many issues, with few consistent patterns or emerging relationships. The fact that impacts can be both curvilinear and vary from resource to resource reinforces the need for monitoring programs that can track changing trends. Finding the causes of a problem gives managers the necessary information to select indicators to track changes over time. Locating tourism activities in areas where resources are both resistant and resilient helps limit damage Resistance and resilience factors may be described in background information collected during the planning process, such as concerning the vulnerability of certain wildlife species. Evaluating a site's goals and objectives during control of tourism impacts will influence tourism activities For example, habituation may make it easier for tourists to see wildlife but seriously compromise scientific study. If scientific investigation is a management objective, maintaining populations of wildlife in a natural state will take precedence over tourism considerations. Impacts that are visitor related should be analyzed accordingly This could be done according to use patterns, types of user groups, group size, amount of use and mode of travel. Through such analysis, visitor groups and activities can be matched with problem areas. A community's stability and structure have an important effect on its resilience Essential factors to analyze include the community's ability to plan and its labor patterns with regard to who is employed, in what capacity and at what wages and during which months. An early assessment should be made of how a community can contribute or influence tourism development. Local communities need time to decide on their direction. Tourism Impact Assessment Report Identifying activities that use existing resources and skills This will maximize the potential economic benefit of tourism development to the local community. Community projects such as small cooperative hotels could be considered, but careful planning and support is needed. Attention should be paid to whether certain tourist ventures may produce wide differences in local salaries. These activities may not be advisable. Determining how tourism revenue is distributed This could be with regard to whether most of it goes to a few individuals or families, or whether it is distributed widely through purchases of local goods or in the form of wages thus, this will reveal the economic impact of tourism opportunities. The assessment of revenue distribution should take into account how tourism projects interact with other economic opportunities within the family unit and the community; for some, even modest revenues from tourism may be significant. The need for an in-depth knowledge of the local culture For example, how people celebrate or how they withdraw or seek privacy during the planning and management of tourism programs is widely acknowledged. Some cultures are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of tourism. To generate tourism that enhances rather than threatens local heritage, managers may consider not so much what tourists might want to see in the community but what residents are prepared to reveal about themselves. MANAGING THE IMPACTS OF TOURISM Any sustainable tourism program must work in concert with stakeholders, or interested parties, including government agencies, conservation and other non-governmental organizations, developers and local communities. Their participation in the planning and management process is of paramount importance. Tourism-related public participation issues form the basis of a checklist for managers who wish to avoid unnecessary conflicts. Knowledge of these issues is an essential prerequisite for effective public participation, particularly when planning stakeholder meetings and setting up tourism advisory councils. Those responsible for promoting sustainable tourism are: 1. Planning Authorities These play a crucial role in facilitating sustainable tourism through enacting for laws and providing guidelines to be adhered to so as to protect wildlife. In developing countries such as Kenya, the government has difficulties in enforcing laws and been proactive in promoting regulations on proper tourist behavior medical tourism since they lack sufficient funds to employ enough park rangers to patrol the Masai Mara reserve. 2. Businesses The International Tourism gains sometimes to think of long-term Partnership with businesses, a worldwide solutions against the impacts of membership organization for tourism that commercial Tourism Impact Assessment Report businesses in the tourism sector have provided. These may include implementing practical guidelines for hotel measures to conserve energy and businesses to adopt (like the water, education to guests and staff) encouraging purchase of local products and employing local people and providing means for guests to be involved in local community development projects. 3. Tourists Tourists also must learn about culture, traditions and background of a host country so as to understand the needs of destination to better appreciate their way of life and avoid interfering with it at any cost. The Masai community around Masai Mara are usually dressed in red shoals and some walk around with spears in case of attack by wild animals. 4. Non-governmental Independent pressure groups These include the World Wide Fund for organizations/NGOs campaigning organizations that are usually nonprofit-oriented and are geared towards conserving natural places and resources like coasts and forests. Management actions can be direct or indirect. Direct management actions confront problems of human behavior through regulations that may entail enforcement, restricting activities or rationing use. Indirect methods seek to affect behavior through education, information and persuasion. A combination of methods is also recommended for controlling vandalism, including physical protection of the resource. Factors to consider when selecting management actions include whether they meet objectives, their likelihood of success and difficulties of implementation, particularly cost. Management of Tourism impacts could take various forms: i. Reducing the number of people who enter an area Reducing visitation in high use areas is a justifiable means of avoiding social impacts such as crowding, but may not by itself substantially reduce some ecological impacts. Reducing the number of people in a tourist site can effectively reduce crowding or congestion. When Masai Mara is crowded with both local and foreign tourists, the management reduces the capacity of visitation so as to protect the wildlife. Management options for reducing the number of visitors to a site can include: restricting entry or closing an area; limiting group sizes; implementing a quota or permit system; increasing fees; or Not providing facilities. Tourism Impact Assessment Report ii. Weighing whether to disperse or concentrate visitors Concentrating people This can limit social and environmental impacts. The strategy offers a high level of control and protection for sensitive resources. By limiting use to a few selected areas within a site, particularly areas that are resistant to impacts or at least not as sensitive to impacts, the policy confines disturbance to a smaller area. Dispersing visitors This is seldom simple and may not mitigate impacts. Limiting environmental impacts in natural areas by dispersing use to different areas can be effective in areas where use levels are low and visitors are conscientious about their behavior. The decision to concentrate or disperse tourism This should reflect policy goals and management objectives. A frequent policy goal is to assure that the benefits of tourism flow to the communities around a site. This may lead to pressure to open up new areas of a site to visitors. iii. Changing the physical environment to resist impacts Increasing a site's resistance to visitor impacts by installing or modifying infrastructure is generally referred to as site-hardening. Adding infrastructure, or \"hardening\" a site, strengthens its physical durability. Another way to avoid impacts is simply to move infrastructure away from sensitive areas. iv. Changing visitor behavior Interpretation and education programs can mitigate environmental and social impacts. Educational programs instruct people on how best to behave at a site. Interpretation programs inform and explain the site's resources and significance to the visitor. Visitors can be taught lowimpact techniques at both cultural and natural sites. v. Offering incentives for practicing certain activities Visitors may be redirected through scheduling. For example, a site may be opened early for birdwatchers or closed early to limit other types of visitors. Proper construction and efficient siting of infrastructure can encourage the use of certain areas over others. vi. Changing types of activity through regulation Regulations limiting activities and/or the way they are practiced can radically affect ecological and social impacts. For example, banning off-road vehicles and motorcycles reduces soil erosion, as does the use of horses. vii. Changing the site's social environment by reducing visitor conflicts Tourism Impact Assessment Report Separating conflicting activities reduces conflict. Allocating specific activities to certain areas helps reduce conflict between different types of visitors. The concept of separating user groups is related to the Recreational Opportunity Spectrum. viii. Distributing benefits to communities affected by the site Locals are more likely to participate in conservation when it is associated with an improvement in their standard of living. Environmental conservation and education programs alone will not achieve results hence the need for collective community responsibility. IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In problem solving for management solutions, the first step is to analyze all indicators and determine why standards are not being met. Amassing information on user groups causing problems (e.g., day users instead of tourists staying for long periods.) will help to focus efforts. When evaluating possible actions, considering the various indirect and direct methods available can be a useful process. Valuable input can be obtained by reviewing the site's goals and objectives during discussions with staff and advisory body members while considering the scenarios that could result from different strategies and actions. Actions should be combined for best results. Costing out different actions on the basis of available staff and other resources will also provide an idea of which actions will be effective. Management actions should not be taken without a thorough analysis and understanding of the socio-cultural and individual importance of a site to the people of the community. REFERENCES 1) Akama, J. S. and Ondimu, K. I. 2001. Tourism product development and the changing consumer demand: a case study of Kenya. 2) Prins, Herbert; Jan Geu Grootenhuis, Thomas T. Dolan (2000). Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use. Springer. ISBN 0-412-79730-5. 3) Jolliffe, Lee (2000). Tea and Tourism: Tourists, Traditions and Transformations. Channel View Publications. ISBN 1-84541-056-4. 4) Nagle, Garrett (1999). Tourism, Leisure and Recreation. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0-17444705-1