Two research articles were assigned with the research chapter, one that compares Mexican and American Adolescents, and one that compares Chinese, Japanese and American Adolescents. Items 1 & 2 below include questions related to these two articles. 1. Examine the article entitled, \"Influences on adolescent brand preferences in the United States and Mexico\" and answer the following questions. a. b. C. d @ o Provide an overview of the article. Describe the sample, sample size, and limitations of the sample. What is being compared? What statistical test is used to make this comparison (Hint: It is a two-sample comparison of means)? What do the p-values or significance mean? What are the findings? What are the implications? Discuss how the article helps marketers understand consumers and its relevance. 2. Examine the article entitled, \"A cross-cultural exploration of materialism in adolescents\" and answer the following questions. o o @ e o Provide an overview of the article. Describe the sample, sample size, and limitations of the sample. What is being compared? What statistical test is used to make this comparison? What do the p-values or significance mean? What are the findings? What are the implications? Discuss how the article helps marketers understand consumers and its relevance. A cross-cultural exploration of materialism in adolescents Allen D. Schaefer, Charles M. Hermans and R. Stephen Parker Department of Marketing, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield, MO, USA Abstract hypothesis, cross-cultural research testing its validity is lacking. This is especially true concerning the construct To date, few studies have empirically examined specific val- of materialism, which has been conceptualized as a basic ues with respect to the global teenager hypothesis. In test- value held by consumers." ing the global teenager hypothesis, this study investigates Materialism has received limited cross-cultural similarities and differences in materialism among 14- to 17- research attention. . With the exception of Simmons year olds in China, Japan and the USA. Significant differ- and Wade's' study comparing British and continental ences were found between respondents from the three European teens in terms of ideals, such as materialism, nations for materialism pending power. a thorough literature search revealed no cross-cultural Discretionary spending power had significant effect on materialism studies focusing on adolescents. Cross- materialism across nations. In addition, evidence supports cultural comparisons can assist in the understanding of cross-national differences in the psychological structure of similarities and differences among teenagers and their he materialism construct. While personal gain and social materialism levels. For example, do similar materialistic gain explain two materialism dimensions for the Japanese traits and values exist across countries as the global and American samples, factor analysis results ts suggest teenage hypothesis would suggest, or are there signifi- materialism may have alternative conceptual underpinnings cant differences in materialism internationally? The in China. The findings of this study generally fail to support purpose of the present research is to address these ques- the global teenager hypothesis as it relates to the value of tions by exploring materialism as it occurs in Chinese, materialism. Japanese and American teenagers. Comparisons are made between teens in these three countries. These Keywords Materialism, adolescent materialism, teen material- three countries were selected for two main reasons. ism, Japan materialism, Chinese materialism, American First, these countries have three of the largest teen mar- materialism. kets in the world (in aggregate spending power, and in the case of China, sheer population). Second, these Introduction nations represent a mixture of developed and develop- ing nations. Thus, this study tests the global teenager According to the global teenager hypothesis, the recent hypothesis specific to the materialism construct by com- proliferation of the Internet and satellite television pro- paring adolescents across an important group of gramming has homogenized the tastes, preferences, nations, which hold significant interest for global fashion, attitudes and values of the world's teens. ~ In marketers. fact, Anderson and Hee' argue there is greater similar- ity in values of teens from different countries, than between teens and older persons in the same countries. Materialism literature While many scholars subscribe to the global teenager Although materialism is increasingly gaining research attention, theorists have yet to agree on a single de- Correspondence finition." Early materialism research by Ward and Allen D. Schaefer, Department of Marketing, Southwest Missouri State University, 901 S. National Avenue, Springfield, MO 65804, USA. Wackman' defined materialism as 'an orientation which E-mail: als 165f@smsu.edu views material goods and money as being important for 2004 Blackwell Publishing Lid International Journal of Consumer Studies, 28, 4, September 2004, pp399-411 | 399A cross-cultural exploration of materialism in adolescents . A.D. Schaefer et al. A.D. Schaefer et al. . A cross-cultural exploration of materialism in adolescents personal happiness and social progress'. Later, Belk parents. They found the Americans were significantly examined the materialistic attitudes of 8- to 16-year child policy, resulting in the 'little emperors' family defined materialism as being comprised of the person- more materialistic than the French, and materialism was olds, and found materialism to be a relatively stable structure, whereby nearly every child is cherished and ality traits of possessiveness, envy and nongenerosity, inversely related to age in both countries. trait, varying only marginally with age. Additionally, a indulged by 'six-pockets' (i.e. two parents and four and as reflecting the importance a consumer attaches ignificant relationship between materialism and sus- grandparents).' In response to this, these 'little emper- to worldly possessions. According to Belk, possessions assume a central role in a materialistic person's life, The US adolescent ceptibility to peer influence was found. Goldberg et al.28 ors' tend to be less tradition bound; more concerned studied 9- to 14-year-old Americans and found that with brand symbolism; and more oriented towards providing the greatest sources of satisfaction and dissat- The USA has 32 million 12- to 19-year olds, who spent more materialistic teens shopped more and saved less; brands, success, and self-gratification than persons from isfaction. More recently, Richins and Dawson" defined a combined $170bn in 2002." They averaged $101 in were more interested in television commercials and new prior generations." materialism as a personal value stressing the importance weekly spending (consisting of discretionary spending products; and were more influenced by in-store promo- The impact of this one-child policy appears to be of owning material possessions and divided it into three combined with any spending done on their parents' tions and advertising. Additionally, they were more dramatic. Cheng's suggests Chinese adolescents may be parts: centrality (possessions play a central role in life), behalf, such as errands)." This income came from vari- likely to have materialistic parents; to perform poorly exhibiting materialistic tendencies. The Beijing Munici- happiness (possessions linked to well-being) and suc- ous sources, including parental handouts, gifts, odd jobs it school; and to have negative attitudes towards school. pality Statistical Bureau surveyed 360 families and ess (success judged by possessions). and part-time employment." Kennedy argued that Consistent with Achenreiner,"the authors found no age found that 66% of the combined incomes of their par- American teens exhibit a predisposition to consump effect for materialism. ents with middle school students went to the child. 35 Cross-cultural materialism tion, resulting from being raised during prosperous Moreover, according to Cheng's 'their (middle school times by time-poor parents. Indeed, this group grew up The Japanese adolescent students') dress must follow fashion trends - leather Materialism has been studied extensively in the USA. possessing four times as many toys as teens 20-30 year jackets, designer jeans, stretch pants and miniskirts. A For example, it has been associated with self-doubt and earlier. Moreover, a Time/CNN poll of 1015 American The relatively small Japanese teenage population ranks headband may cost several dozen yuan; they buy it with- insecurity," social influence conformity," and self- adults reported that 80% perceived children today a ourth in the world in terms of aggregate spending." out hesitation' esteem that is contingent on external accomplishments being more spoiled than children of 10-15 years prior, With an ageing population and a disproportionately and praise. 12 and two-thirds of polled parents admitted to having small percentage of its population between the ages of Researchers have expanded the study of materialism spoiled children." 10-19 (approximately 13 million), Japan is a nation of Methodology cross-culturally, and most of these studies have involved While empirical materialism research has been pri- small nuclear families."These small nuclear families A study examining cross-cultural differences in materi- samples of undergraduate and graduate business stu- marily adult focused, only a limited number of studies appear to have fostered a child-centred mentality alism required a sample of adolescents and the admin- dents. Ger and Belk' compared business students from have examined materialism in adolescents. While some among Japanese parents. White" found that many Jap- istration of a survey instrument in each of the three 12 nations in terms of their materialism levels. They of these studies occurred in Great Britain$19 and anese mothers worked part-time, and incurred heavy countries of interest. For the purposes of this study, a found Romanians to be the most materialistic, followed Korea,20 most were conducted in the USA. Many of the debt so as to provide children with luxury items. More- convenience sample of students in each country was by Americans, New Zealanders, Ukrainians, Germans American studies related adolescent materialism to over, grandparents further indulged these children, pro- drawn. Two graduate students familiar with the central and Turks. In contrast, Swedes were the least material- environmental factors, such as family and peer commu- viding funding for the purchase of the 'right' products USA (one from Japan and the other from China) iden- stic, followed by the French, British, Indians, Thais and nication, and television exposure." For example, required for inclusion into the 'right' groups. Because of tified comparable regions and metropolitan areas in Israelis. The authors argue that the findings support the families demonstrating a socio-oriented family the importance of the group in Japan, Japanese teens their respective nations, in terms of geographical loca- notion that materialism is highest in socially and eco- communication structure (i.e. harmony and conflict strive to be exactly like their friends." This causes a tion and relative socio-economic status. Thus, each nomically dynamic countries. Eastman et al. compared avoidance within the family unit is stressed) were shown proliferation of trendy purchasing behaviour, which in country's participants came from public schools located the materialism levels of undergraduate college stu- to display higher materialism levels." Researchers have turn leads to extreme materialism among Japanese in middle-class neighbourhoods of medium-sized met- dents (primarily business emphasis) from Mexico, also found positive relationships between American teens. Reitman" argues adolescent materialism is driv- opolitan areas. China and the USA and concluded the Chinese and adolescent materialism and frequency of peer ing the recent proliferation of Japanese teen prostitu- Respondents included public high school students Mexican respondents were the most and least material- communication and television viewing levels.24 Kasser tion. According to one girl interviewed, 'If I want to buy between 14 and 17 years of age from China, Japan and istic, respectively. In another study involving Mexican et al.25 found that highly materialistic American 18-year Prada and Vuitton bags costing $600 to $700, I have to the USA. A total of 556 usable questionnaires were undergraduates, Clarke and Mickens compared busi- olds tended to have had non-nurturing parents, who do this kind of job. Everybody wears them. I feel like a returned by the respondent pool for analysis. The Chi- ness students in Australia, France, Mexico and the USA, purportedly promoted the development of insecure more valuable person if I have them'. nese sample included 172 (Mage = 15.18) students from and found the Mexicans to be the least materialistic. feelings. Moreover, Rindfleisch et al." found that highly one high school in suburban Xianyang, located in the Clark and Micken" attribute this finding to the col- materialistic persons tended to come from disrupted lectivistic nature of the Mexican culture. Finally, The Chinese adolescent central Chinese province of Shaanxi. The Japanese sam- homes. Presumably, this experience left them feeling ple consisted of 168 (Hage = 16.36) students from a high Lundstrom and White"* conducted a cross-cultural/ less loved and less secure during their formative years. There are approximately 200 million Chinese between school in the Kyoto metropolitan area. The US sample intergenerational study comparing the materialism lev- Some American studies have involved a mixture of the ages of 10-19. Consequently, China's teen market consisted of a total of 216 (Hage = 15.99) high school els of American and French MBA students and their pre- and post-pubescent individuals. Achenreiner27 is massive. In the late 1970s, China instituted the one- students from western Missouri. All participants were 400 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 28, 4, September 2004, pp399-411 2004 Blackwell Publishing Lid 2004 Blackwell Publishing Lid International Journal of Consumer Studies, 28, 4, September 2004, pp399-411 | 401A cross-cultural exploration of materialism in adolescents . A.D. Schaefer et al. A.D. Schaefer et al. . A cross-cultural exploration of materialism in adolescents native to their respective countries. The survey instru- reported a coefficient alpha of 0.60 when they initially Table 1 Sample characteristics ment was classroom-administered during the students' adapted this scale from one used in a prior study by regular classes. Wackman et al. to examine racial differences in adver- Item Descriptor China Japan USA Total tising directed at adolescents. Sample size For enhanced reliability purposes, the MMA scale n (%) 172 (30%) 168 (31%) 216 (39%) 556 (100%) Translation Gender Male (%) 95 ( 57%) 71 (41%) 92 (43%) 258 (47%) was modified in the present research for improved Female (%) 72 (43%) 01 (59%) 123 (57%) 296 (53%) A three-way language barrier complicated the compar- applicability to Asian and American teens. Items related Age 14-15 (% ) 10 (66%) 36 (21% ) 68 (31%) 214 (38%) ison of respondents in China, Japan and the USA. To to the importance of having the 'right' or 'appropriate 16-17 (%) 58 (34%) 36 (79%) 48 (69%) 342 (62%) address language differences, the survey was translated possessions were added so the scale better reflected the into Japanese and Chinese. To verify concurrent inter- manner in which materialism varies functionally across Percentages reported are valid per cent of respondents pretation of the instrument across all three cultures, the cultures of interest. For example, possessions per- back translation techniques were used for item compar- form a group identification function in Asian societies isons. 30 Direct translation was not attempted because of to a much greater degree than in Western societies.39 with prior research showing male adolescents to be neously (Wilk's Lambda: F = 1.953, d.f. = 518, 2879, the difficulty in translating certain words. Rather, the The number of response categories was increased more materialistic than females."The sample charac- P we would expect Americans to express a greater propensity to judge others by their possessions. 'The individualism-collectivism construct* is also use- ful in interpreting these results. American culture is viewed as highly individualistic, while Chinese and Jap- anese cultures are typically collectivistic. The crucial distinction between individualistic and collectivist cul- tures is that individualist cultures focus on 'I-identity' and personal self-esteem enhancement, while collectiv- ist societies attend more closely to 'we-identity' and social group-esteem maintenance.\" Moreover, the 2004 Blackwell Publshing Lid goods acquired by individuals in collectivist societies are indicative of their 'in-groups' (e.g. community, family, clubs, schools), which offer identity and protection in exchange for group loyalty.\" In individualistic societies, possessions are utilized as an alternative means for establishing and communicating identity, because indi- viduals are not identified with family or group.* Because in individualistic societies, goods communicate more personal meaning than in collectivistic societies, we would expect that the US teens would have a greater tendency towards defining others by their possessions. 'This may be especially true in the case of today's Amer- ican adolescents, who are thought to be especially prone to authentically expressing themselves through their possessions.** Relative to the Asian youth, the Americans agreed less strongly with the statement that owning the right things was the most important thing in life. In fact, it was the Chinese who agreed most strongly with this statement. Apparently, the American teens were rela- tively unconcerned with the social appropriateness of their possessions. Indeed, it is Confucian societies that stress the importance of meeting 'in-group' expecta- tions regarding socially appropriate possessions.\" Con- cerning Japanese teens, White notes, 'The young teen is intensely focused on being appropriate, and she negotiates the path by testing on friends what's learned in the media discovering who she is by what her friends like to wear, to hear and to buy'. Another possible explanation for the low rating given by the American youths is the reference to having the right things as being the most 'important' thing in life. As Goldberg etal. suggest, while materialism matters greatly to American youth, other issues involved in the 'growing up process' probably impact happiness to a much greater degree. Interestingly, relative to the Asians, the Americans agreed more strongly that people would like them more if they owned the right things. Auty and Elliott\" argued British teens are not attempting to be like other people in the brand choices so much as they are trying to be liked by them. Clearly, both British and American teens are from individualistic cultures, which focus on personal self-esteem enhancement, rather than group- esteem enhancement, as is the case with the collectivist cultures. Therefore, we would expect that Americans International Journal of Consumer Studies, 28, 4, September 2004, pp3g9-411 | 407 A cross-cultural exploration of materialism in adolescents A.D. Schaefer et al. would place more importance on themselves being liked by others, than in their group being liked by others. Limitations The findings in this study may not generalize well to the entire teen populations of the nations included. This may be especially true for the Chinese sample, which was taken from the interior regions of that nation. Dif- ferent results may have occurred had the sample been drawn from the nation's dynamic Eastern coastal region. Interestingly, most of the adolescent participants in other Chinese buying behaviour studies resided in more cosmopolitan cities such as Beijing % while very few have been from central China. This may be a key point, as Cui and Liu found significant regional differences in purchasing power, lifestyles, media usage and consumption patterns among Chinese consumers. Thus, by focusing on adolescents from China's mid- section, the present study contributes to a more com- plete understanding of the materialistic tendencies of Chinese teenagers. The personal gain construct for the Chinese sample was unidentified. The fact that the concept of personal gain failed to materialize may be explained in one or more of the following ways: (1) the survey instrument ineffectively conveyed a consistent concept across these measures, and thus no correlation existed, (2) the Chi- nese respondents had no common opinion of the con- cept of personal gain, or (3) the concept of personal gain was foreign to them. While care was taken in the trans- lation process, and a re-examination of translations sup- ported the validity of the survey instrument, caution must be exercised when interpreting differences in the attitudinal measures for China. Additionally, when the item associated with the unidentified factor is removed from the factor analysis (item MAT1) all of the remain- ing personal gain measures load with the social gain measures. This may provide an additional indication that in a highly collective society such as China even personal gain is perceived to be a group benefit. Thus, the T-identity factor may be absent. While it is clear real differences exist in these measures, we cannot ascertain the Chinese teens interpreted the items to be associated with personal gain. Further scale development work is 408 | International Journal of Consumer Studies, 28, 4, September 2004, pp3g9-411 needed for the materialism construct where it is applied in cross-cultural settings. Conclusion In the present research, significant differences in mate- rialism were shown to exist across groups of teens from China, Japan and the USA. The underlying cultural motivations for materialism may assist in explaining these differences. The results suggest Chinese teens may be less materialistic than those from other countries, apparently contradicting prior research suggesting that economic deprivation and materialism are linked. How- ever, respondents in prior cross-cultural materialism research involving Chinese resided in major urban cen- tres, enhancing the likelihood of their having experi- enced the recent proliferation of consumer goods in China. In contrast, participants in the present study were from the less developed and more stable interior region of China. Several interesting differences were revealed in the study (see Tables2 and 5). Relative to either Asian group, the US teens agreed more strongly with five of the seven materialism items. This finding supports prior research suggesting the USA is perhaps the most mate- rialistic nation in the world. The positive link between discretionary spending power and materialism might lead one to conclude that the Japanese are the most 'materialistic, but because the more individualistic coun- try (USA) has some of the highest measures for mate- rialism, there is some support for influences resulting from Hofstede's* individualist/collectivist construct. Therefore, cultural effects on materialism would war- rant further research. Consistent with individualistic thinking, the Americans seemed most convinced that their possessions influence how they are judged and liked by others. While both the Chinese and Japanese cultures are rooted in Confucian and collectivist tradi- tions,\" the respondents from those two nations differed significantly from each other on four of the seven mate- rialism items. Interestingly, the Chinese teens in this study expressed more interest in owning the right things than in owning expensive things, and this difference was much more pronounced than in the case with the Japa- nese, suggesting that Japan has been impacted by a Westernizing materialism effect. 2004 Biackwell Publishing Lid A.D. Schaefer et al. A cross-cultural exploration of materialism in adolescents The global teenager hypothesis, as it relates to mate- rialistic beliefs, was not supported by the findings of this study. If materialism is in fact a driver of consumption behaviour, then standardized marketing campaigns tar- geting teens in multiple countries may be limited in their effectiveness. Marketing managers involved in such endeavours must utilize message appeals that are consistent with the materialistic values and beliefs of those targeted, otherwise they risk rejection of their appeals. For example, the results suggest that appeals attempting to link an advertised product with happiness may be met with more scepticism by teens in the USA and China than with those in Japan. Clearly, firms that respect the diversity and complexity of the materialistic values of the world's teenagers will have a distinct advantage when competing for this market. References 1. Wysocki, B. (1997) The global mall:in developing nations, 'many youths splurge, mainly on US goods - flush with cash and plastic, they load up on Levi's and tune in to MTV alotof Little Emperors'. The Wall Street Journal - Eastern Edition, 26 June, Al. Meredith, G.E. & Schewe, C.D. (2002) Defining Markeis Defining Moments. Hungry Minds, New York. . Anderson, P. & Hee, X. (1998) Price influence of age segments of Beijing consumers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 15, 152-169. Richins, M.L. & Dawson, S. (1992) A consumer values orientation for materialism and its measurement: scale development and validation. Journal of Consumer Research, 19,303-316. . Ger, G. & Belk, R.W. (1996) Cross-cultural differences in materialism. Journal of Economic Psychology, 11, 55-77. . Eastman, ., Fredenberger, B., Campbell, D. & Calvert, S. (1997) The relationship between status consumption and materialism: cross-cultural comparison of Chinese, Mexican, and American students. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 5, 52-65. . Simmons, C.B. & Wade, W.B. (1985) A comparative study of young people's ideals in five countries. Adolescence, 20, 889-898. Ward, S. & Wackman, D. (1971) Family and media influences on adolescent consumer learning. American Behavioral Scientist, 14, 415-421. 2004 Blackwell Publshing Lid . Belk, R. (1985) Materialism: traits aspects of living in a 'material world. Journal of Consumer Research, 12, 265~ 280. Chang, L. & Arkin, R. (2002) Materialism and an attempt to cope with uncertainty. Psychology and Marketing, 19, 389-406. . Schroeder, J. & Dugal, S. (1995) Psychological correlates of the materialism construct. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 243-253, . Deci, EL. & Ryan, RM. (1%95) Human autonomy: the basis for true self esteem. In Efficacy, Agency and Self- Esteem (ed. by M. Kernis), pp. 3149. Plenum Press, New York. Clark, I. & Micken, K.S. (2002) An exploratory cross- cultural analysis of the values of materialism. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 14, 65-86. . Lundstrom, W.J. & White, D.S. (1999) Intergenerational and cultural differences in materialism: an empirical investigation of consumers in France and the USA. Journal of Euro Marketing, 7, 41-65. . Teen Research Unlimited (2003) Teens Spent $170 billion in 2002. [WWW document]. URL http:// www.teenresearch.com/PRview.cfm?edit_id=152 . Kennedy, L. (2001) The up & coming generation. Consumer Insight, 3,15-18. . Gibbs, N. (2001) Do kids have too much power? Time, 158,44-52. Dittmar, H. & Pepper, L. (1994) To have is to be: materialism and person perception in working-class and 'middle-class British adolescents. Journal of Economic Psychology, 15,233-252. . Flouri, E. (2000) An integrated model of consumer 'materialism: can economic socialization and maternal values predict materialistic attitudes in adolescents Journal of Socio-Economics, 28, 707-724. . Kim, 1.S. (1998) Assessing the causal relationships among materialism, reference group, and conspicuous consumption of Korean adolescents. Consumer Interests Annual, 44, 155. . John, D.R. (1999) Consumer socialization of children: a retrospective look at twenty-five years of research. Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 183-213. Mochis, G.P. & Moore, R.L. (1979) Family communication and consumer socialization. In Advances in Consumer Research, 6 (1), (ed. by W.L. Wilkie), Pp. 359-363. Association for Consumer Research: Ann Arbor, ML Mochis, G. & Churchill, G. (1978) Consumer socialization: a theoretical and empirical analysis. Journal of Marketing Research, 15, 599-609. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 28, 4, September 2004, pp3g9-411 | 409 INFLUENCES ON BRUCE D. KEILLOR R. STEPHEN PARKER ADOLESCENT BRAND AND ALLEN SCHAEFER PREFERENCES IN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO The close ties between the U.S. and Mexican market has led to an increasing number of American firms considering operations south of the border. A number of segments within the Mexican market represent substantial opportunities for U.S. companies. This study considers the information sources used to form brand preferences by the emerging adolescent segment in the Mexican market when com- BRUCE D. KEILLOR pared to their American counterparts. The findings indicate that Assistant Professor of Marketing and International Mexican adolescents are receptive to outside information sources in Business forming brand preferences for products at various involvement lev- Southwest Missouri State University els. However, significant differences exist between Mexican and American adolescents suggesting that, for U.S. firms to be success- ful in reaching this market segment in Mexico, a specialized adver- tising strategy may be advisable. T he North American Free newed the confidence of U.S. Trade Agreement firms. (NAFTA) opened up a The Mexican market has sev- wealth of opportunities for U.S. eral characteristics making it par- firms desiring to expand their ticularly attractive to U.S. firms. operations into international Mexican consumers are exhibit- R. STEPHEN PARKER markets. The Mexican market, in ing an ever-increasing demand Professor of Marketing particular, is one on which for foreign products, ranging Southwest Missouri State University American marketers are focusing from electronics and higher level more attention. Mexico's in- technology to upscale consumer creased importance to U.S. firms goods and information to nov- is reflected by several facts: (1) elty items, and in most cases Mexico is the third largest single this preference for imports is market, after Canada and Japan, tied to a high degree of product for U.S. exports; (2) the Mexican and brand loyalty (Bos, 1994). In market is the fastest-growing addition, Mexicans tend to view export market for U.S. products, American-made products as be- averaging an 18 percent growth ing of the highest quality rate in the past three years; and Brewer, 1994). (3) U.S. exports to Mexico in One market segment which ALLEN S 1994 totaled $33 billion, or al- offers tremendous growth op- Assistant Professor of most 10 percent of total world- portunity in Mexico is the youth/ Marketing Southwest Missouri State wide U.S. export sales (Brewer, adolescent market (Reysen, University 1994). Although the peso's re- 1993). Increasingly, Mexican re- cent decline made foreign firms tailers and wholesalers are cater- The authors would like to acknowledge wary of the Mexican market, its ing to this segment both in the valuable assistance of William Cook subsequent strong rebound cou- terms of product offering and and several anonymous reviewers in the pled with commitments from the selling strategy. A number of preparation of this manuscript. American government have re- large American firms (e.g., Gen- Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH-MAY/JUNE 1996 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.ADOLESCENT BRAND PREFERENCES ADOLESCENT BRAND PREFERENCES eral Mills, Procter and Gamble, tive advertising strategies for comprised of four basic compo- Robertson, 1981; Cohen and sumers in their formation of and Mattel) are also beginning to reaching this important, and nents. The process begins with Golden, 1972; Sherif, 1935). brand preferences. target adolescents in their mar- growing, market segment. It will the individuals themselves. In While it has long been recog- While family is considered to . . . the act of purchasing keting efforts in Mexico (Fisher also help fill an important void particular, the age or lifecycle nized that identifying socializa be an important influencer, and consuming products 1990). Unfortunately, creating in current published research position of the individual is im- tion agents and communication much of its effect may be limited becomes a means by which effective advertising programs in relating to the consumer social- portant. Younger persons are processes is fundamentally im- to teaching children the basic Latin America in general, and ization process across cultural generally considered to be most portant to the development of 'rational" aspects of consump- the values of a particular Mexico in particular, is problem- and national boundaries. influenced as they are still learn- effective cross-cultural/cross-na- tion, which include price-quality social class can be expressed. atic for American companies ing to behave in society. At the Ivertising strategies relationships (Ward and Wack- (Zbar, 1994). A common mistake Culture and same time society's requirements Douglas and Dubois, 1977), lit- man, 1973). Research has shown of U.S. advertisers entering the and expectations, in the form of le research exists which ad- that upper-class and middle for a variety of purchase acts. Mexican market is treating Latin Consumer Socialization social structural variables such as dresses cross-cultural consumer class parents tend to be more According to Moschis and America as an essentially ho- culture, also help form the basis behavior from the perspective of involved in their children's con- mogenous market. This failure According to Churchill and Moore (1979), the need for inde- of the socialization process. The the socialization process. sumption activities than their pendence from his or her par- to recognize that no single pan- Moschis (1979), "socialization is remaining two components are In the context of the model ower-class counterparts, due to ents causes the adolescent to hemispheric Latin American often viewed as a social process the agent-learner relationship, or this study investigates the im- a greater awareness of their so- become more dependent upon market exists for advertisers, by which norms, attitudes, moti- the means by which the individ- pact of several different sources cial-class norms. Moschis et al. and that the Mexican market re- vations, and behaviors are trans- his or her peers. At this stage in ual learns society's require- of influence on the brand prefer- (1977) suggested that this phe- the youth's life, peers are quires specialized advertising mitted from specific sources, ments, and the actual outcome ences of adolescents across two nomena may reflect the higher viewed as a vital information strategies, leads to what are of commonly known as 'socializa- In terms of the aspects of con- cultures. Socialization, or influ- social-class parents' desire for ten ineffective marketing opera- tion agents' to the learner." In source about products consid sumer socialization being stud- encing, agents have the ability to their child's competence, social tions (Zbar, 1994). ered important for peer accep order to understand how hu ied here, this outcome would be exert societally-sanctioned pres- tance such as clothing. The purpose of this study is to acceptance, and well-being. mans behave in their roles as the information source consid sure on the learner in the social- Thus, the act of purchasing and In considering the interrela investigate the market informa- consumers, it is vitally important ered useful and appropriate for a ization process. These agents are tionship between various influ- tion sources used by Mexican to first examine how these be- consuming products becomes a particular product type. This generally considered to be a per- means by which the values of a encers in the consumer socializa- adolescents, as compared to haviors are learned and main model, represented by Figure 1, son or social organization di- particular social class can be tion process, researchers have their American counterparts, in tained (Mcleod and O'Keefe, suggests that culture has a sub- 1972). Ward (1974) defines "con- rectly involved in the socializa- expressed. generally found that the impact the context of the Model of Con- stantial impact on the socializa- sumer socialization" as the pro- tion process because of frequent In contrast to the influence of of mass media is low relative to sumer Socialization (Moschis, tion process to which young contacts with the individual, im- family, young people can also parental and peer influence 1987; Moschis and Churchill, cess through which this learning consumers are exposed (Glazer portance to the individual, and/ learn the "value expressive" as- 1978). Establishing a better un- takes place. During consumer Ward, 1974). While family and Moynihan, 1975). or control over rewards and pects of consumption from their seems to be important in teach- derstanding of the information socialization, people acquire This study uses the Model of ing adolescents "rational" as- sources used by Mexican adoles knowledge, skills, and attitudes punishments given to the indi- Consumer Socialization (Mo- peer groups. In these cases a vidual (Moschis, 1987). Figure 2 need for a psychological associa- pects of consumption, Moschis cents to formulate brand prefer relevant to their functioning as schis, 1987; Moschis and Chur- represents the research model as tion with a group is evidenced and Moore (1978) argue that ences, as compared to similar consumers in the marketplace. chill, 1978) to explore the chang- adapted from the Model of Con- by acceptance of its norms, val- such learning may be facilitated American consumers, will enable As Figure 1 shows, the con- ing nature of consumer suscepti- sumer Socialization. ues, or behaviors (Ward and by the child's interactions with U.S. firms to create more effec sumer socialization process is bility to interpersonal influences In considering the influencee's Wackman, 1973). In a review of other socialization sources, espe- as they impact the formulation age and lifecycle position, theory the consumer socialization litera- cially the mass media. Moschis of brand preferences across two and supporting empirical re- ture, Ward (1974) argued that and Churchill (1978) suggest that Figure 1 cultures. These influences, search suggest people at differ- researchers have generally found television and peers may be im- Conceptual Model of Socialization which include the individuals' ent ages and/or lifecycle stages parental influences decrease and portant influencers, with each willingness to conform to the can be influenced differently by peer influences increase with age serving to teach young people expectations of others as well as Social Structural environmental factors such as Variables the means by which they learn cultural norms (Ward et al., about various aspects of con- 1977). The implications to this Figure 2 sumer behavior (e.g., brand study are that individuals in the Source/ Learning preferences), have been studied Research Model nfluencer Properties as a general trait demonstrated same age/lifecycle stage residing outcomes) n different cultural environ- Mexican by individuals in a single cul- ments may be influenced by dif- Adolescents tural setting (Bearden, Nete- ferent sources (Moschis, 1985). Mother meyer, and Teel, 1989). Further This is especially important to Fatne Brother Age or Life Cycle several studies have also empiric . Sister Brand Position advertisers as their ability to ef- cally documented the existence Friends Preferences ectively communicate their mes- = Peers of interpersonal influence in in sage to the selected target mar- . Advertisements dividual decision processes (e.g. ket is directly influenced by the American Salespeople Adapted from Moschis and Churchill (1978). Moscovici, 1985; Kassarjian and information source used by con- Adolescents 18 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH-MAY/JUNE 1996 Journal of ADVERTISING RESEARCH-MAY/JUNE 1996 49 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.ADOLESCENT BRAND PREFERENCES ADOLESCENT BRAND PREFERENCES the "expressive" elements of sumer behavior which result consumption. This notion is sup- will be more likely to use from differences in communica- Sampling and Table 1 ported by Moschis and Moore their parents as the primary tion within the family (Moschis, Methodology Sources of Information for Brand Preferences- (1982) who contend that mere influencer in forming brand 1987). Specifically, in a family Low-Involvement Products exposure to the television media preferences. communication structure which A convenience sample was Candy Soda may lead to the learning of emphasizes traditional family- drawn from middle-school stu- the expressive aspects of The third hypothesis deals role interactions, such as Mex dents in both countries. A total Information source U.S. sample Mexican sample U.S. sample Mexican sample consumption with the issue of the extent to co, brand preferences are more of 360 adolescents responded to 2.49 3.49. which peers impact the formula- ikely to be formed based on the Mothe 2.60 3.74' the questionnaire. Of those, 178 Hypotheses tion of brand preferences across social values articulated by were Mexican while 182 were Father 2.49 3.53' 2.64 3.73* the two cultures. The tradition- parents. On the other hand, a American. In order to ensure Brothers 3.75 3.96 3.67 3.91 The issue being explored in oriented Mexican culture theo family communication structure sample comparability, as much this study are the differences retically suggests that adoles- which focuses more on practical Sisters 4.02 as might be possible in a cross- 3.78 3.88 3.86 which may exist in the roles cents in this environment would aspects of consumer behavior, cultural study, care was taken in Friends 3.36 3.73* 3.09 3.61* played by influencers on one be less likely than adolescent rather than the preservation of selecting potential respondents particular learning property in Americans to seek outside opin- tradition, will place greater em- 2.80 3.25* who would be classified as Peer 2.77 3.31* two unique social structure set- ions in the course of forming phasis on relatively objective 'middle class" in their respec- Advertisements 2.75 3.24' 2.71 3.31* tings (see Figure 2). Moschis ndividual brand preferences. sources of influence (e.g., adver- tive cultures (Reilly and Rathje, salespeople 2.16 2.80' (1987) argues that "family is in- tising) in the formation of brand 2.09 .79' 1985). The samples drawn from strumental in teaching young H3: American adolescents will preferences. Thus, the four