What were the independent and dependent variables in the study you read What were the authors trying to show in their article What was the most important result of the study Gender based Differences of Contagious Negative Emotions, Notable Psychological Distress, and Mental Health Burden during the COVID 19 Outbreak Gregory S n aa er org The Health Economics Research Unit at CLI, Glasgow, Scotland ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to empirically examine gender based differences of contagious negative emotions, notable psychological distress, and mental health burden during the COVID 19 outbreak Building my argument by drawing on data collected from APA, Chapman University, Ginger, GMU CCCC, HHD, ONS, Pew Research Center, Rek et al (2020), Statista, the University of Melbourne, and YPCCC, I performed analyses and made estimates regarding prev alence of stress, anxiety, and depression during the COVID 19 pandemic The struc tural equation modeling technique was used to test the research model Keywords gender COVID 19 negative emotion psychological distress How to cite Sampson, G (2020) Gender based Differences of Contagious Negative Emotions, Notable Psychological Distress, and Mental Health Burden during the COVID 19 Outbreak, Journal of Research in Gender Studies 10(2) 128 137 doi 10 22381 JRGS 10220208 Received 28 May 2020 Received in revised form 17 December 2020 Accepted 23 December 2020 Available online 28 December 2020 1 Introduction There is a pressing demand for psychological backing and counseling for persons, groups, and populations at risk for mental health disorders (e g , in creased anxiety or depressive symptoms) throughout the COVID 19 related quarantine (Guo et al , 2020) Women display elevated COVID19 anxiety, increased time of dwelling on such a contagious virus daily, and more heightened depressive symptoms than men (Petzold et al , 2020) 128 2 Conceptual Framework and Literature Review COVID 19 patients may show symptoms of mental health and psychiatric disorders (e g , anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances) (Deng et al , 2020) Behavioral alterations and constraints in social participation (e g , reduced community contact) are brought about by isolation, quarantine, and physical distancing related to COVID 19 psychological distress displayed in irritation, anxiety, and depression (Usher et al , 2020) Modifications in community activities, limitation of lifestyle and social interactions, panic as regards COVID 19, the economic decline, and restricted food access may cause unsatisfactory mental health (Flentje et al , 2020) Nurses interacting with COVID 19 patients incessantly, while supplying them with specialized care and diseaserelated knowledge, improve their informational and emo tional backing, and confidence of recovery (Zhang et al , 2020a) Throughout the deconfinement operation, conveying unequivocal messages concerning social behaviors as regards washing hands, wearing face masks, and physical distancing, and the requirements for frequenting public places, assists in decreasing doubt (Glowacz and Schmits, 2020) 3 Methodology and Empirical Analysis Building my argument by drawing on data collected from APA, Chapman University, Ginger, GMU CCCC, HHD, ONS, Pew Research Center, Rek et al (2020), Statista, the University of Melbourne, and YPCCC, I performed analyses and made estimates regarding prevalence of stress, anxiety, and de pression during the COVID 19 pandemic The structural equation modeling technique was used to test the research model 4 Results and Discussion COVID 19 pandemicrelated stress may have transient consequences on the mental health of numerous individuals (Kujawa et al , 2020) Persons dis playing COVID 19 symptoms experience significant levels of psychological distress, panic, anxiety, and depression (Corts lvarez et al , 2020) Through out the COVID 19 outbreak, men and women with symptoms of mental ill health experience comparable levels of suicidal ideation (O'Connor et al , 2020) The links between anxiety and depressive symptoms and elevated alcohol consumption during the COVID 19 pandemic are persistent between women and men (Tran et al , 2020) Increased exposure to COVID19 related stressors is related to heightened anxiety and depressive symptoms (Rudenstine et al , 2020) (Tables 1 13) 129 Table 1 Have you done any of the following when you have felt stress or anxiety related to COVID 19 Select all that apply ( ) (men women) Talked with a friend or family member about my stress or anxiety 72 76 Increased my time spent on social media 76 79 Looked up information about how to manage stress or anxiety online 63 66 Decreased my time spent reading consuming news 61 58 Mental health session online or in person (e g with a psychologist) 22 25 Decreased my time spent on social media 24 21 Sources Course Hero NASPA College Pulse our survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 2 How would you rate the change in stress you are experiencing at work compared to a week ago ( ) (men women) Decreased significantly 3 2 Decreased slightly 8 6 Stayed the same 36 34 Increased slightly 22 23 Increased significantly 31 35 Sources CHCF my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 3 who say they are very somewhat concerned that they (men women) Will get COVID 19 and require hospitalization Might unknowingly spread COVID 19 to others White 75 77 71 73 Black 78 79 74 76 Hispanic 76 78 73 75 18 29 68 70 63 65 30 49 71 73 67 69 50 64 72 75 72 75 65 77 80 75 78 Upper income 73 74 65 67 Middle income 76 78 68 71 Lower income 79 82 74 77 Sources Pew Research Center my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 4 How the stress and anxiety caused by the COVID 19 pandemic are having an effect on individuals' mental health Select all that apply (men women) 62 65 are anxious about the possibility of getting COVID 19 59 62 are anxious about becoming seriously ill or dying from COVID 19 69 71 are anxious about the possibility of family and loved ones getting COVID 19 48 51 COVID 19 is having a serious impact on their mental health 61 65 have trouble sleeping (difficulty falling asleep, midnight awakening, and earlier awakening) Sources APA my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 130 Table 5 Because of the COVID 19 pandemic, over the past 14 days I ( , yes) (men women) have had upsetting dreams that replay part of the experience of the COVID 19 pandemic or are clearly related to it 72 75 have had powerful images or memories that sometimes come into my mind in which I feel the experience of the COVID 19 pandemic is happening again in the here and now 70 73 have avoided internal reminders of the experience of the COVID 19 pandemic (e g thoughts, feeling, or physical sensations) 66 68 have avoided external reminders of the experience of the COVID 19 pandemic (e g people, places, conversations, objects, activities, or situations) 61 63 have been super alert , watchful, or on guard 56 55 have been feeling jumpy or easily startled 37 39 have suffered from unforeseeable severe anxiety attacks (panic) with physical symptoms (e g palpitations, chest pain, dizziness) 37 40 have suffered from sleep problems, such as difficulty falling asleep ( 30 minutes) difficulty sleeping through the night early morning awakening fearful dreams or nightmares not about the COVID 19 pandemic fearful dreams or nightmares about the COVID 19 pandemic 34 37 felt or behaved in a more irritable, rageful, angry 25 27 Sources Rek et al (2020) my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 6 Are you worried about each of the following as a result of the spread of COVID 19 ( ) (men women) You or someone in your family getting sick from COVID 19 82 85 The healthcare system becoming overwhelmed by COVID 19 patients 81 84 Being unable to access medical care 79 81 Sources YPCCC GMU CCCC my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 7 reporting high anxiety by marital status (men women) Single 23 23 Married or civil partnership 48 46 Separated Divorced 27 28 Widowed 2 3 Sources ONS my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 The COVID 19 related knowledge and indicators of the links between the acuteness of anxiety or depressive symptoms and elevated alcohol consump tion do not differ by gender (Tran et al , 2020) Anxiety like behavior (e g becoming readily anxious or irascible) is displayed predominantly in the affected population and in the COVID 19 infected patients (Zhang et al , 2020b) Increased stressors harmonize with the heightened frequency of COVID19 exposure and mortality rates (Rudenstine et al , 2020) 131 Table 8 Have you experienced any of these thoughts, feelings, or reactions associ ated with the COVID 19 pandemic Select all that apply ( ) (men women) Feeling stressed or overwhelmed 87 89 Anxiety, worry, or fear 85 87 Racing thoughts 79 80 Sadness, tearfulness, loss of interest in usual enjoyable activities 78 81 Physical symptoms, such as increased heart rate, stomach upset, fatigue, or other uncomfortable sensations 61 64 Frustration, irritability, or anger 59 62 Restlessness or agitation 57 61 Feeling helpless 54 58 Difficulty concentrating or sleeping 49 53 Feeling disconnected from others 37 39 Apprehension about going to public spaces 44 47 Trouble relaxing 37 40 Sources The University of Melbourne my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 9 In the past 7 days, how often have you had physical reactions, such as sweating, trouble breathing, nausea, or a pounding heart, when thinking about your experience with the COVID 19 outbreak ( ) (men women) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) 13 10 Some or a little of the time (1 2 days) 17 14 Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3 4 days) 27 28 Most or all of the time (5 7 days) 43 48 Sources Pew Research Center my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 10 Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by the following problems ( ) (men women) Not at all Several days More than half the days Nearly every day Feeling nervous, anxious or on edge 1 1 14 12 33 32 52 55 Not being able to stop or control worrying 1 1 15 12 35 32 49 55 Little interest or pleasure in doing things 2 1 16 14 32 30 50 55 Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless 2 1 14 13 34 32 50 54 Sources HHD my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 11 at least somewhat concerned about unknowingly spreading COVID 19 to others (men women) Very concerned 67 70 Somewhat concerned 33 30 Sources Statista my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 132 Table 12 The impact of the COVID 19 pandemic on collective mental health ( , yes, relevance) (men women) Vulnerable populations have been particularly hard hit, as COVID 19 has worsened already present health inequities for older adults, low income families, and people in substandard or congregate living conditions 87 89 Once physical distancing measures are lifted, many people will still approach social activity with vigilance 79 82 Public transportation, office environments, and other public fora may still cause anxiety for large swaths of the population 72 74 If anxiety isn't addressed, it may lead to a diagnosable mental health disorder or endure for years to come 75 78 Even when life does return to normal, perceived loss of control and sustained feelings of helplessness across social, economic, and health dimensions may persist 71 74 COVID related stress and anxiety are causing serious sleep disruptions short term consequences of sleep disruption include increased stress, emotional distress and mood disorders, and cognitive, memory, and performance deficits Chronic sleep deprivation is associated with a number of physical and psychiatric problems, with men experiencing an increase in mortality 67 71 Social isolation is creating barriers to recovery from substance use disorder 54 56 Individual and collective grief from having lost loved ones and over having survived the pandemic when others didn't 57 60 Sources Ginger my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Table 13 Adults' perceptions of how COVID 19 pandemic has influenced their mental health ( ) (men women) Less than normal About the same as normal More than normal Feel down, depressed, or hopeless 16 12 31 30 53 58 Feel nervous, anxious, or on edge 12 10 20 18 68 72 Feel stressed 11 8 18 16 71 76 Sources Chapman University my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020 Multiple stressors shape women's psychological and physical health through out the COVID 19 epidemic as regards the need to provide family harmony and educate children while acting as the caretaker of the loved ones' negative emotions (Tian et al , 2020) Senior citizens may not employ online commu nications, being at certain risk of prolonged isolation by physical distancing (Douglas et al , 2020) Psychiatric wards can be set up with specific areas for COVID 19 positive patients having severe psychiatric disorders and without acute medical symptoms (Percudani et al , 2020) As a result of annoyance and worry, COVID 19 related violence results with likely transgenerational transmission of psychological distress and brutality (Mazza et al , 2020) 133 5 Conclusions and Implications The rise in awareness and harnessing of digital health to satisfy the needs of COVID 19 quarantined patients with physical distancing constraints, and a deficiency in physical assistance have directed attention to anxiety and de pression, somewhat disregarding individuals having severe mental illnesses (e g , psychotic disorders) (Torous and Keshavan, 2020) The distressing features of participation in the COVID 19 pandemic bring about mental health risks for both healthcare workers and patients, possibly generating long term psychological harm (Choi et al , 2020) Monitoring neuropsychiatric symptoms and neuroimmune status of COVID 19 infected patients may configure the prolonged adverse effects of such virus on brain and behavior (Troyer et al , 2020) Persons exposed to more COVID 19 stressors have in creased chances of depression symptoms (Ettman et al , 2020) As limitations, this article focuses only on gender based differences of contagious negative emotions, notable psychological distress, and mental health burden during the COVID 19 outbreak Further research should consider gender differences in COVID 19 sentiments, attitudes, habits, and behaviors Survey method The interviews were conducted online and data were weighted by five variables (age, race ethnicity, gender, education, and geographic region) using the Census Bureau's American Community Survey to reflect reliably and accurately the demographic composition of the United States The cumulative response rate accounting for nonresponse to the recruitment surveys and attrition is 2 5 The break off rate among individuals who logged onto the survey and completed at least one item is 0 2 Sampling errors and test of statistical significance take into account the effect of weighting Question wording and practical difficulties in conducting surveys can also introduce error or bias into the findings of opinion polls The sample weighting was accomplished using an iterative proportional fitting process that simultaneously balanced the distributions of all variables Stratified sampling methods were used and weights were trimmed not to exceed 3 Average margins of error, at the 95 confidence level, are 2 The design effect for the survey was 1 3 For tabulation purposes, percentage points are rounded to the nearest whole number The precision of the online polls was measured using a Bayesian credibility interval Confirmatory factor analysis was employed to test for the reliability and validity of measurement instruments Descriptive statistical analysis and multivariate inferential tests were undertaken for the survey responses and for the purpose of variable reduction in regression modeling Multivariate analyses, and not univariate associations with outcomes, are more likely to factor out confounding covariates and more precisely determine the relative significance of individual variables Independent t tests for continuous variables or chi square tests for categorical variables were employed An Internet based survey software program was utilized for the delivery and collection of responses 134 Compliance with ethical standards Ethical approval All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards Informed consent An informed e consent was obtained from individual participants Study participants were informed clearly about their freedom to opt out of the study at any point of time without providing justification for doing so Animal studies statement verification This article does not require animal studies verification Identifiable images and data statement verification This article does not require identifiable images and data statement verification Data and materials availability All research mentioned has been published and data is available from respective outlets Funding information This paper was supported by Grant GE 1349867 from the Behavioral and Consumer Neuroscience Laboratory, Dallas, TX Author contributions The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and approved it for publication Conflict of interest statement The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any com mercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest

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What were the independent and dependent variables in the study you read? What were the authors trying to show in their article? What was the

What were the independent and dependent variables in the study you read?

What were the authors trying to show in their article? What was the most important result of the study ?

Gender-based Differences of Contagious Negative Emotions, Notable Psychological Distress, and Mental Health Burden during the COVID-19 Outbreak

Gregory S..n@aa-er.org

The Health Economics Research Unit

at CLI, Glasgow, Scotland

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this study was to empirically examine gender-based differences of contagious negative emotions, notable psychological distress, and mental health burden during the COVID-19 outbreak. Building my argument by drawing on data collected from APA, Chapman University, Ginger, GMU/CCCC,

HHD, ONS, Pew Research Center, Rek et al. (2020), Statista, the University of Melbourne, and YPCCC, I performed analyses and made estimates regarding prev alence of stress, anxiety, and depression during the COVID-19 pandemic. The struc tural equation modeling technique was used to test the research model.

Keywords: gender; COVID-19; negative emotion; psychological distress

How to cite: Sampson, G. (2020). "Gender-based Differences of Contagious Negative Emotions, Notable Psychological Distress, and Mental Health Burden during the COVID 19 Outbreak,"Journal of Research in Gender Studies10(2): 128-137. doi:10.22381/JRGS 10220208

Received 28 May 2020 Received in revised form 17 December 2020

Accepted 23 December 2020 Available online 28 December 2020

1. Introduction

There is a pressing demand for psychological backing and counseling for persons, groups, and populations at risk for mental health disorders (e.g., in creased anxiety or depressive symptoms) throughout the COVID-19-related quarantine. (Guo et al., 2020) Women display elevated COVID19 anxiety, increased time of dwelling on such a contagious virus daily, and more heightened depressive symptoms than men. (Petzold et al., 2020)

128

2. Conceptual Framework and Literature Review

COVID-19 patients may show symptoms of mental health and psychiatric disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances). (Deng et al., 2020) Behavioral alterations and constraints in social participation (e.g., reduced community contact) are brought about by isolation, quarantine, and

physical distancing related to COVID-19 psychological distress displayed in irritation, anxiety, and depression. (Usher et al., 2020) Modifications in community activities, limitation of lifestyle and social interactions, panic as regards COVID-19, the economic decline, and restricted food access may cause unsatisfactory mental health. (Flentje et al., 2020) Nurses interacting with COVID-19 patients incessantly, while supplying them with specialized care and diseaserelated knowledge, improve their informational and emo tional backing, and confidence of recovery. (Zhang et al., 2020a) Throughout the deconfinement operation, conveying unequivocal messages concerning social behaviors as regards washing hands, wearing face masks, and physical distancing, and the requirements for frequenting public places, assists in decreasing doubt. (Glowacz and Schmits, 2020)

3. Methodology and Empirical Analysis

Building my argument by drawing on data collected from APA, Chapman University, Ginger, GMU/CCCC, HHD, ONS, Pew Research Center, Rek et al. (2020), Statista, the University of Melbourne, and YPCCC, I performed analyses and made estimates regarding prevalence of stress, anxiety, and de

pression during the COVID-19 pandemic. The structural equation modeling technique was used to test the research model.

4. Results and Discussion

COVID-19 pandemicrelated stress may have transient consequences on the mental health of numerous individuals. (Kujawa et al., 2020) Persons dis playing COVID-19 symptoms experience significant levels of psychological distress, panic, anxiety, and depression. (Corts-lvarez et al., 2020) Through out the COVID-19 outbreak, men and women with symptoms of mental ill health experience comparable levels of suicidal ideation. (O'Connor et al., 2020) The links between anxiety and depressive symptoms and elevated alcohol consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic are persistent between women and men. (Tran et al., 2020) Increased exposure to COVID19- related stressors is related to heightened anxiety and depressive symptoms. (Rudenstine et al., 2020) (Tables 1-13)

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Table 1Have you done any of the following when you have felt stress or anxiety related to COVID-19? Select all that apply. (%) (men/women)

Talked with a friend or family member about my stress or anxiety	72/76
Increased my time spent on social media	76/79
Looked up information about how to manage stress or anxiety online	63/66
Decreased my time spent reading/consuming news	61/58
Mental health session online or in-person (e.g. with a psychologist)	22/25
Decreased my time spent on social media	24/21

Sources: Course Hero; NASPA; College Pulse; our survey among

4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 2How would you rate the change in stress you are experiencing at work compared to a week ago? (%) (men/women)

Decreased significantly.	3/2
Decreased slightly.	8/6
Stayed the same.	36/34
Increased slightly.	22/23
Increased significantly.	31/35

Sources: CHCF; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 3% who say they are very/somewhat concerned that they... (men/women)

	Will get COVID-19 and require hospitalization	Might unknowingly spread COVID-19 to others
White	75/77	71/73
Black	78/79	74/76
Hispanic	76/78	73/75
18-29	68/70	63/65
30-49	71/73	67/69
50-64	72/75	72/75
65+	77/80	75/78
Upper income	73/74	65/67
Middle income	76/78	68/71
Lower income	79/82	74/77

Sources: Pew Research Center; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 4How the stress and anxiety caused by the COVID-19 pandemic are having an effect on individuals' mental health. Select all that apply. (men/women)

62%/65%	are anxious about the possibility of getting COVID-19.
59%/62%	are anxious about becoming seriously ill or dying from COVID-19.
69%/71%	are anxious about the possibility of family and loved ones getting COVID-19.
48%/51%	COVID-19 is having a serious impact on their mental health.
61%/65%	have trouble sleeping (difficulty falling asleep, midnight awakening, and earlier awakening).

Sources: APA; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

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Table 5"Because of the COVID-19 pandemic,

over the past 14 days I..." (%, yes) (men/women)

have had upsetting dreams that replay part of the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic or are clearly related to it.	72/75
have had powerful images or memories that sometimes come into my mind in which I feel the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic is happening again in the here and now.	70/73
have avoided internal reminders of the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g. thoughts, feeling, or physical sensations).	66/68
have avoided external reminders of the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g. people, places, conversations, objects, activities, or situations).	61/63
have been "super-alert", watchful, or on guard.	56/55
have been feeling jumpy or easily startled.	37/39
have suffered from unforeseeable severe anxiety attacks (panic) with physical symptoms (e.g. palpitations, chest pain, dizziness).	37/40
have suffered from sleep problems, such as difficulty falling asleep (< 30 minutes) difficulty sleeping through the night early morning awakening fearful dreams or nightmares not about the COVID-19 pandemic fearful dreams or nightmares about the COVID-19 pandemic	34/37
felt or behaved in a more irritable, rageful, angry	25/27

Sources: Rek et al. (2020); my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 6Are you worried about each of the following

as a result of the spread of COVID-19? (%) (men/women)

You or someone in your family getting sick from COVID-19	82/85
The healthcare system becoming overwhelmed by COVID-19 patients	81/84
Being unable to access medical care	79/81

Sources: YPCCC; GMU/CCCC; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 7% reporting high anxiety by marital status (men/women)

Single	23/23
Married or civil partnership	48/46
Separated/Divorced	27/28
Widowed	2/3

Sources: ONS; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

The COVID-19-related knowledge and indicators of the links between the acuteness of anxiety or depressive symptoms and elevated alcohol consump tion do not differ by gender. (Tran et al., 2020) Anxiety-like behavior (e.g. becoming readily anxious or irascible) is displayed predominantly in the affected population and in the COVID-19 infected patients. (Zhang et al., 2020b) Increased stressors harmonize with the heightened frequency of COVID19 exposure and mortality rates. (Rudenstine et al., 2020)

131

Table 8Have you experienced any of these thoughts, feelings, or reactions associ- ated with the COVID-19 pandemic? Select all that apply. (%) (men/women)

Feeling stressed or overwhelmed	87/89
Anxiety, worry, or fear	85/87
Racing thoughts	79/80
Sadness, tearfulness, loss of interest in usual enjoyable activities	78/81
Physical symptoms, such as increased heart rate, stomach upset, fatigue, or other uncomfortable sensations	61/64
Frustration, irritability, or anger	59/62
Restlessness or agitation	57/61
Feeling helpless	54/58
Difficulty concentrating or sleeping	49/53
Feeling disconnected from others	37/39
Apprehension about going to public spaces	44/47
Trouble relaxing	37/40

Sources: The University of Melbourne; my survey among

4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 9In the past 7 days, how often have you had physical reactions, such as sweating, trouble breathing, nausea, or a pounding heart, when thinking about your experience with the COVID-19 outbreak? (%) (men/women)

Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day)	13/10
Some or a little of the time (1-2 days)	17/14
Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days)	27/28
Most or all of the time (5-7 days)	43/48

Sources: Pew Research Center; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 10Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by the following problems? (%) (men/women)

	Not at all	Several days	More than half the days	Nearly every day
Feeling nervous, anxious or on edge	1/1	14/12	33/32	52/55
Not being able to stop or control worrying	1/1	15/12	35/32	49/55
Little interest or pleasure in doing things	2/1	16/14	32/30	50/55
Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless	2/1	14/13	34/32	50/54

Sources: HHD; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 11% at least somewhat concerned about unknowingly

spreading COVID-19 to others? (men/women)

Very concerned	67/70
Somewhat concerned	33/30

Sources: Statista; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

132

Table 12The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

on collective mental health (%, yes, relevance) (men/women)

Vulnerable populations have been particularly hard-hit, as COVID-19 has worsened already-present health inequities for older adults, low-income families, and people in substandard or congregate living conditions.	87/89
Once physical distancing measures are lifted, many people will still approach social activity with vigilance.	79/82
Public transportation, office environments, and other public fora may still cause anxiety for large swaths of the population.	72/74
If anxiety isn't addressed, it may lead to a diagnosable mental health disorder or endure for years to come.	75/78
Even when life does return to normal, perceived loss of control and sustained feelings of helplessness across social, economic, and health dimensions may persist.	71/74
COVID-related stress and anxiety are causing serious sleep disruptions. short-term consequences of sleep disruption include increased stress, emotional distress and mood disorders, and cognitive, memory, and performance deficits. Chronic sleep deprivation is associated with a number of physical and psychiatric problems, with men experiencing an increase in mortality.	67/71
Social isolation is creating barriers to recovery from substance use disorder.	54/56
Individual and collective grief from having lost loved ones and over having survived the pandemic when others didn't.	57/60

Sources: Ginger; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Table 13Adults' perceptions of how COVID-19 pandemic

has influenced their mental health (%) (men/women)

	Less than normal	About the same as normal	More than normal
Feel down, depressed, or hopeless	16/12	31/30	53/58
Feel nervous, anxious, or on edge	12/10	20/18	68/72
Feel stressed	11/8	18/16	71/76

Sources: Chapman University; my survey among 4,400 individuals conducted April 2020.

Multiple stressors shape women's psychological and physical health through out the COVID-19 epidemic as regards the need to provide family harmony and educate children while acting as the caretaker of the loved ones' negative emotions. (Tian et al., 2020) Senior citizens may not employ online commu nications, being at certain risk of prolonged isolation by physical distancing. (Douglas et al., 2020) Psychiatric wards can be set up with specific areas for COVID-19 positive patients having severe psychiatric disorders and without acute medical symptoms. (Percudani et al., 2020) As a result of annoyance and worry, COVID-19-related violence results with likely transgenerational transmission of psychological distress and brutality. (Mazza et al., 2020)

133

5. Conclusions and Implications

The rise in awareness and harnessing of digital health to satisfy the needs of COVID-19 quarantined patients with physical distancing constraints, and a deficiency in physical assistance have directed attention to anxiety and de pression, somewhat disregarding individuals having severe mental illnesses (e.g., psychotic disorders). (Torous and Keshavan, 2020) The distressing features of participation in the COVID-19 pandemic bring about mental health risks for both healthcare workers and patients, possibly generating long-term psychological harm. (Choi et al., 2020) Monitoring neuropsychiatric symptoms and neuroimmune status of COVID-19 infected patients may configure the prolonged adverse effects of such virus on brain and behavior.

(Troyer et al., 2020) Persons exposed to more COVID-19 stressors have in creased chances of depression symptoms. (Ettman et al., 2020) As limitations, this article focuses only on gender-based differences of contagious negative emotions, notable psychological distress, and mental health burden during the COVID-19 outbreak. Further research should consider gender differences in COVID-19 sentiments, attitudes, habits, and behaviors.

Survey method

The interviews were conducted online and data were weighted by five variables (age, race/ethnicity, gender, education, and geographic region) using the Census Bureau's American Community Survey to reflect reliably and accurately the demographic composition of the United States. The cumulative response rate accounting for nonresponse to the recruitment surveys and attrition is 2.5%. The break-off rate among individuals who logged onto the survey and completed at least one item is 0.2%. Sampling errors and test of statistical significance take into account the effect of weighting. Question wording and practical difficulties in conducting surveys can also introduce error or bias into the findings of opinion polls. The sample weighting was accomplished using an iterative proportional fitting process that simultaneously balanced the distributions of all variables. Stratified sampling methods were used and weights were trimmed not to exceed 3. Average margins of error, at the 95% confidence level, are +/-2%. The design effect for the survey was 1.3. For tabulation purposes, percentage points are rounded to the nearest whole number. The precision of the online polls was measured using a Bayesian credibility interval. Confirmatory factor analysis was employed to test for the reliability and validity of measurement instruments. Descriptive statistical analysis and multivariate inferential tests were undertaken for the survey responses and for the purpose of variable reduction in regression modeling. Multivariate analyses, and not univariate associations with outcomes, are more likely to factor out confounding covariates and more precisely determine the relative significance of individual variables. Independentt-tests for continuous variables or chi-square tests for categorical variables were employed. An Internet-based survey software program was utilized for the delivery and collection of responses.

134

Compliance with ethical standards

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

An informed e-consent was obtained from individual participants. Study participants were informed clearly about their freedom to opt out of the study at any point of time without providing justification for doing so.

Animal studies statement verification

This article does not require animal studies verification.

Identifiable images and data statement verification

This article does not require identifiable images and data statement verification.

Data and materials availability

All research mentioned has been published and data is available from respective outlets.

Funding information

This paper was supported by Grant GE-1349867 from the Behavioral and Consumer Neuroscience Laboratory, Dallas, TX.

Author contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any com mercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.