Which of the following is not put forth as a criticism of advertising and brand names?

a$.$ Advertising manipulates people's tastes to create a desire that otherwise would not exist.

b$.$ Advertising increases competition, which causes unnecessary bankruptcies and layoffs.

c$.$ Advertising increases brand loyalty, causes demand to be more inelastic, and thus, increases markup over marginal cost.

d$.$ Brand names cause consumers to perceive differences that do not exist between goods.

e$.$ All of the answer choices are criticisms of advertising and brand names.