Your reflection notes should be organized to present:

1. Key learning points from the three readings of your choice (a summary)
2. Your reflections
3. References

Reflections is underlined as this is considered one of the most important parts of the learning process. Based on the readings, you must consider your unique experiences and perspectives. And also Cite

Jeong, S., Hsiao, Y. Y., Song, J. H., Kim, J., & Bae, S. H. (2016).The moderating role of transformational leadership on work engagement: The influences of professionalism and openness to change.Human Resource Development Quarterly,27(4), 489-516.

This study examined the relationships of teachers' work engagement with their professionalism and openness to change and investigated the moderating role of the transformational leadership of principals in explaining these relationships. Multilevel data were collected from 1,886 teachers from 59 schools in South Korea, and multilevel path analysis was performed to analyze the data. The study results found that teachers' work engagement was positively influenced by their professionalism and openness to change in the Korean educational setting. However, no significant relationship was found between teachers' work engagement and the transformational leadership of principals. It also showed that the transformational leadership of principals positively moderated the relationship between work engagement and openness to change of teachers. Finally, we identified the negative moderating effect of the transformational leadership of principals on the relationship between work engagement and professionalism of teachers. The theoretical implications of these findings are provided along with practical suggestions for policy makers, superintendents, and teacher education institutes.

openness to change; professionalism; transformational leadership; work engagement; multilevel analysis

The South Korean (hereafter Korean) educational system has traditionally operated within Confucian educational values, and its structure is similar to Japan's as a result of the colonization period (Kwon, [ 51] ). Most schools in Korea are categorized as public, and both public and private schools are expected to adopt the national curriculum established by the government (Clark & Park, [ 21] ). More recently, the everdeepening globalization and advances in technology have created new directions for school reform. Korean educational policies have begun shifting from strict government control to decentralized school governance (Lee & Park, [ 53] ). Included in this Korean education policy movement are increased autonomy of the school curriculum, greater deregulation in the areas of personnel and budgets of each school, and the evaluation of teaching effectiveness to hold each school accountable (Jeong & Lee, [ 46] ).

To successfully implement the new educational policies, there is growing consensus regarding the critical nature of teacher engagement (Hakanen, Bakker, & Schaufeli, [ 36] ; Lim, [ 57] ). Teachers are the major group directly interacting with students on a daily basis and play a central role in school innovation. Engaged teachers are passionate about teaching and more effectively react to the needs of students and the school (Firestone & Pennell, [ 30] ). In this sense, it has been argued that increasing teacher engagement will be the cornerstone of school innovation that strengthens the national education system (Gyeonggi Institute of Education [GIE], [ 35] ).

Recent research has greatly emphasized teachers' professionalism and openness to change as the personal resources to increase their work engagement. The less control that is applied in the teaching practice with increased autonomy, the more teachers' professionalism is accentuated to ensure highquality and effective education (Kwak, [ 50] ). Teachers' professionalism reflects teachers' attitudes and ability to demonstrate mastery of their knowledge and skills and actively engage in continuous learning (Lee, [ 54] ; Watkins, [ 95] ). Furthermore, the importance of teachers' readiness to change has been widely discussed in the context of successful educational reform as Korean teachers have grappled with continuous changes enforced by the government and often do not readily accept changes (GIE, [ 35] ; Lim, [ 57] ). Teachers' attitudes toward these changes, whether open or cynical, seem to affect their level of engagement in implementing changes (Choi, [ 19] ). However, only few studies have elucidated the associations of professionalism and openness to change with work engagement in educational settings.

The leadership of principals, particularly in the context of Korean educational settings, has been considered a key determinant for organizational success, since principals possess the ultimate power in a school's operation (Park, [ 71] ). Korean educational practices have widely accepted the concept of transformational leadership as an effective leadership behavior (Cho & Na, [ 18] ). Teacher training institutes in Korea have delivered numerous leadership programs to help school principals demonstrate transformational leadership (Kwon, [ 51] ). Transformational leadership has also been regarded as an important job resource to facilitate work engagement (Christian, Garza, & Slaughter, [ 20] ; Macey & Schneider, [ 62] ). It is unclear, however, whether principals' transformational leadership actually enhances teachers' work engagement in Korean educational settings, and how this type of leadership interacts with teachers' personal resources (e.g., professionalism and openness to change) remains understudied.

Understanding the antecedents and moderators of work engagement and understanding how to facilitate followers' work engagement are imperative concepts to develop a science and theory of this field. These concepts are also a primary interest of many organizations (Rich, Lepine, & Crawford, [ 76] ). A variety of antecedents have been suggested in the literature, but few have been empirically tested (Wollard & Shuck, [ 96] ). The leverage point between individual and organizational factors has been suggested as the most neglected area of the science of work engagement (Saks & Gruman, [ 78] ). Macey and Schneider ([ 62] ) conceptualized that various conditions of the workplace can have direct and indirect effects on work engagement, and stated that the nature of leadership is one of the conditions that most interest us. However, surprisingly, the psychological mechanisms of leadership by which leaders influence work engagement have received little attention, especially in terms of the interacting effect with the followers' characteristics (Bakker, Albrecht, & Leiter, [ 4] ; Christian et al., [ 20] ). More research is needed to address the contingent role of leadership in what specific contexts to increase work engagement (Liden & Antonakis, [ 56] ).

Recognizing the research gap and practical significance, first, the present study aims to examine the effects of professionalism, openness to change, and transformational leadership of principals on teachers' work engagement. Second, it investigates the moderating effects of transformational leadership in explaining the associations of teacher work engagement with teachers' professionalism and openness to change. Since research evidence has shown a link between work engagement and positive organizational outcomes, human resource development (HRD) practitioners and leaders of various organizations have paid much attention to work engagement and continue to strive to develop relevant strategies (Sarti, [ 79] ). This study is expected to provide important implications for HRD in the Korean education setting and to contribute to advancing a theory of work engagement and transformational leadership. Due to the similarities in national culture and educational structure, the study results may be directly relevant to other East Asian countries such as China or Japan. Considering the current global convergence in terms of educational policy as well as the international focus on the Korean education system (Lee & Park, [ 53] ), this study will also provide valuable insights for other countries around the word.

Theoretical Framework and Research Hypotheses

The Job Demands-Resources (JDR) model (Bakker & Demerouti, [ 6] ; Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, [ 97] ), social cognitive theory (Bandura, [ 9] ), and theory of person-environment (PE) fit (Jansen & KristofBrown, [ 45] ) were merged to develop the theoretical framework of the current study. The JDR model illustrates the negative effect of demanding job conditions on burnout, and the positive effect of job resources on work engagement, as well as the moderating role of job resources that buffer the negative effect of job demands (Bakker & Demerouti, [ 6] ). To build the theoretical framework of the present study, we adopted only the positive motivational process in the JDR model because our research focus was not on burnout but on work engagement. According to the expanded JDR model (Xanthopoulou et al., [ 97] ), the motivational antecedents of work engagement in the literature can be categorized into personal resources (e.g., optimism) and job resources (e.g., leadership support). Personal resources denote individual characteristics that include resiliency and individuals' sense of their ability to manage their environment and stimulate personal growth (Xanthopoulou et al., [ 97] ). Professionalism and openness to change may be classified into personal resources because the two concepts are representative of individual behaviors and/or characteristics. Job resources refer to organizational, interpersonal, or task features of a job, which support achievement of work goals, personal growth, and development (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti, & Xanthopoulou, [ 7] ; Sarti, [ 79] ). By definition, job resources may include transformational leaders' support in organizations. Consequently, the JDR model implies that professionalism, openness to change, and transformational leadership have main effects on work engagement. However, the JDR model falls short of elucidating the interaction between personal resources and job resources, which has been reported in previous studies (e.g., Saks & Gruman, [ 78] ; Zhu, Avolio, & Walumbwa, [ 99] ).

In regard to the interaction between personal resources and job resources, social cognitive theory and theory of PE fit provide insights that shed light on the specific relationship of interest. Social cognitive theory (Bandura, [ 9] ) suggests that the behavior of individuals is affected by the social situation in which they operate, but that they behave differently due to differences in their cognitive appraisals of the situation. That is, the term social emphasizes that much of an individual's behavior is generated in accordance with situational circumstances, while the term cognitive implies that individual characteristics influence the perceptions of an individual's circumstances. This interactive and reciprocal process between individuals and their environment forms the "motivation, attitudes, and action" of individuals (Stajkovic & Luthans, [ 88] , p. 63). Thus, social cognitive theory explains work engagement in terms of the interaction between teachers' personal resources (i.e., professionalism and openness to change) and their job resources/environment (i.e., perceived consequences stemming from their leader with respect to their professionalism and openness to change, such as the leader's support or denial). This proposition is further supported by the theory of PE fit, which is defined as the congruence, match, similarity, or correspondence between the person and the environment (Edwards & Shipp, [ 26] ). The fundamental tenet of the PE fit theory is that outcomes are produced through the interaction between individuals and their environments that can be classified into five dimensions: vocation, job, organization, group, and people (Jansen & KristofBrown, [ 45] ). Although it is debatable whether leadership support is nested in the organizational dimension (Eisenberger, Stinglhamber, Vandenberghe, Sucharski, & Rhoades, [ 29] ) as we agree upon, or whether in the people dimension (Jansen & KristofBrown, [ 45] ), one of the consistent assumptions of the PE fit theory, is that good fit results in positive outcomes (Jansen & KristofBrown, [ 45] ). Taken together, transformational leadership is expected to have positive interactions on the relationships between personal resources and work engagement. The relationships between the research factors are further elaborated and hypothesized in the literature review below.

Teachers' Work Engagement

Schaufeli, Salanova, GonzlezRom, and Bakker ([ 80] ) defined work engagement as "a positive, fulfilling, workrelated state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption" (p. 74). Vigor refers to the level of emotional energy, mental resilience, and persistence while working. Dedication is characterized by feelings of enthusiasm, pride, and significance, as well as being strongly involved in one's work. Absorption, the last component, denotes a state of full immersion or concentration on one's work to the degree to which one forgets how much time has passed (Schaufeli et al., [ 80] ). Work engagement is a unique, distinct construct in that it represents a more comprehensive and broader concept than other notions such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, or job involvement, encompassing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components associated with individual role performance (Christian et al., [ 20] ; Shuck, Ghosh, Zigarmi, & Nimon, [ 83] ).

The educationspecific literature is largely consistent with generic studies in that work engagement is related to positive organizational behaviors. In a school context, highly engaged teachers are energetic, determined to participate, and committed to their teaching roles. These characteristics are expected to enhance work performance, productivity, and educational service. Teachers' work engagement also generates a sense of community within a school, a commitment to academic goals and professional development, and sensitivity to students' or the school's needs (Louis & Smith, [ 58] ). Bakker and Bal ([ 5] ) found that the weeklevel work engagement of teachers is positively associated with both weeklevel performance and creation of their own job resources (e.g., autonomy, exchange with supervisors). In addition, studies have demonstrated that the organizational commitment (Hakanen et al., [ 36] ) and job satisfaction (Higaard, Giske, & Sundsli, [ 40] ) of teachers is positively predicted by their work engagement. Moreover, work engagement is negatively related to job burnout and the intention to quit among teachers (Higaard et al., [ 40] ).

Main Effect of Professionalism

Professionalism refers to an individual's attitudinal, behavioral, and intellectual orientation to perform to the highest standards of practice and improve the quality of service toward one's occupation (Boyt, Lusch, & Naylor, [ 16] ; Demirkaslu, [ 24] ). Talbert and McLaughlin ([ 89] ) argued that professionalism in the teaching occupation is manifested by "a common knowledge base or technical culture, commitment to meeting the needs of all students, and durable professional identities and commitments" (p. 130). Professionalism is considered the qualifications, proficiency, or competence to achieve teaching excellence, and has become an indispensable element of teachers' identity, given the specialized knowledge, skills, and high ethical standards demanded for the position (Edwards & Nuttall, [ 27] ). Animated discussions emphasizing the importance of teacher professionalism have emerged around achieving highquality education, enhancing student achievement, and solving educational problems (Avalos & Barrett, [ 1] ).

Work engagement, as a psychological state, inevitably involves individuals' notions of self in its process, such as selfesteem, selfefficacy, and selfidentity (Macey & Schneider, [ 62] ). Kahn ([ 47] ) suggested that "people can use varying degrees of their selves, physically, cognitively, and emotionally, in the roles they perform" (p. 692). It has been conceptually argued and empirically tested that high scores on selfefficacy are expected to indicate high work engagement (Xanthopoulou et al., [ 97] ). Furthermore, people who possess high professionalism tend to be hardworking, confident, and resourceful, and these characteristics can be identified as the positive antecedent of work engagement. Consistent with these conceptual arguments, Schaufeli et al. ([ 80] ) found that reduced professional efficacy generates burnout, eventually resulting in decreased work engagement.

Teachers who have a high degree of professional identity possess a strong sense of competence, autonomy, and ambition (Sachs, [ 77] ). The level of professionalism is reflected in their attitudes to their jobs, in terms of dedication or a feeling of vitality, such as attending developmental activities or enjoying working (Marshall, [ 63] ). Sergiovanni ([ 81] ) urged researchers to pay more attention to not only competence but virtue as well, because professionals are trusted. He continuously mentioned that in teaching, a professional virtue denotes the intense commitment and engagement to practice. Other empirical studies have also supported the positive relationship between professionalism and job satisfaction (Pearson & Moomaw, [ 72] ) and organizational commitment (Bartol, [ 10] ). Therefore, it is expected that the professionalism of individuals would be positively associated with work engagement. However, little research has empirically examined this relationship.

Hypothesis 1: Professionalism will be positively associated with work engagement of teachers.

Main Effect of Openness to Change

Given that the pace and complexity of change around school environments has intensified, teacher perceptions toward change are critical for determining school performance (Loup, 1997). In studying such individual attitudes that are specific to organizational change, researchers have paid attention to the construct of "openness to change," which is conceptualized as a "willingness to support change and positively influence the potential consequences of the change" (Wanberg & Banas, [ 94] , p. 132). In school settings, researchers (Fullan, Cuttress, & Kilcher, [ 31] ; Loup, 1997) contend that positive perceptions and attitudes toward change initiatives among teachers promote job productivity, school innovation, and student academic performance.

In a situation where an organization initiates change, members with high openness to change tend to actively seek relevant information, contemplate possible consequences and future implications on their own job and the entire organization, and endeavor to make sense of the new environment (Choi, [ 19] ; Neves, [ 70] ). These characteristics imply that employees who are ready for change are positive, attentive, and connected. People with high openness to change engage in supporting and implementing changes cognitively and affectively (Rafferty, Jimmieson, & Armenakis, [ 74] ). Lyons, Swindler, and Offner ([ 61] ) found that organizational members' openness to change is a positive predictor of their intentions to engage in change activities, which leads to actual work engagement. In addition, several studies have shown that individuals with a more positive attitude toward change exhibit a higher degree of participation at work (Eby, Adams, Russell, & Gaby, [ 25] ), organizational commitment, and job satisfaction (Holt, Armenakis, Feild, & Harris, [ 41] ), all of which are constructs that potentially infer work engagement. In contrast, change cynicism has been found to have a negative association with work engagement in several studies (e.g., Kang, Lee, & Kim, [ 48] ). However, little empirical research has focused on the relationship between openness to change and work engagement.

Hypothesis 2: Openness to change will be positively associated with work engagement of teachers.

Main Effect of Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership has been defined in terms of influence on followers, which results in transformation of follower attitudes, beliefs, values, and performance (Yukl, [ 98] ). Transformational leadership is derived from four behavioral dimensions: individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence (Bass, [ 11] ; Bass & Avolio, [ 12] ). Individualized consideration encompasses a leader's developmental orientation towards, and individual attention to, followers' personal needs (Bass, [ 11] ). Intellectual stimulation refers to a leader's behaviors that develop followers' ability to think about problems in new ways by increasing the followers' interest in the problems (Bass, [ 11] ). Inspirational motivation is displayed when a leader uses emotional dialogues to arouse followers' motivation to achieve high standards of performance (Bass, [ 11] ). As the last dimension, idealized influence includes leadership behaviors that express a leader's beliefs that are consistent with espoused beliefs and that increase mutual trust (Yukl, [ 98] ). Thus, a transformational leader is often considered to be a caring supporter and team builder who has high performance expectations and influential power that arouses strong emotions in followers to allow them to identify with the leader (Yukl, [ 98] ). Transformational leaders invigorate a sense of passion and energy among employees by delivering inspirational visions, empowering employees in decision making, and encouraging them to develop new ideas (Bass, 1999; Macey & Schneider, [ 62] ). As a result, employees are more likely to be emotionally, cognitively, and physically motivated to attain goals.

Transformational leadership of principals is largely discussed in terms of its positive effect on an innovative climate (Geijsel, Sleegers, Van den Berg, & Kelchtermans, [ 32] ), teacher performance (Geijsel, Sleegers, Stoel, & Krger, [ 33] ), teacher efficacy, and teachers' commitment to organizational values (Ross & Gray, [ 75] ). These research findings coincide with the fundamental tenet of transformational leadership to increase organizational members' commitment and engagement in meeting goals (Balyer, [ 8] ). Moolenaar and Sleegers ([ 66] ) found that principals' transformational leadership reinforces their central positions to influence teachers within their schools. However, studies examining the relationship between work engagement and transformational leadership in educational setting are rare.

Hypothesis 3: Transformational leadership of principals will be positively associated with work engagement of teachers.

Interaction Between Professionalism and Transformational Leadership

Teachers with higher professionalism tend to view their primary responsibilities as their students' welfare, solve problems on their own, and continuously strive to enhance their expert knowledge through professional development (TschannenMoran, [ 91] ); thus, they are more likely to demonstrate higher work engagement. Highly professional, engaged teachers are dedicated to performing at the highest academic standards, and thus they are expected to embrace the principal's leadership support.

Professionalism is socially constructed by various actors in a community such as management (e.g., principals); thus, professionalism is not static but constantly changing (Troman, [ 90] ). In other words, the professional self or professionalism evolves over time and is influenced by the larger social contexts (Day, [ 23] ). TschannenMoran ([ 91] ) found that teachers' professionalism is positively affected by the professional orientation of principals in their leadership style. Principals who adopt a professional orientation promote opportunities for teachers to be involved in decision making, thus supporting autonomy needs, and encouraging intellectual inquiry. Transformational principals also provide individualized support, establish and expect high academic standards, and encourage job autonomy and participation in decision making (Bono & Judge, [ 14] ; Leithwood & Jantzi, [ 55] ), which is similar to the concept of professional orientation. As previously discussed in the theoretical framework section, social cognitive theory suggests that teachers having similar levels of professionalism may show different levels of work engagement depending on their varying perceptions of the principal's transformational leadership as a type of job resources. Furthermore, the theory of PE fit implies that the moderating role of the principal's leadership should be positive because of the good teacher-principal fit stemming from the similarity between the principal's transformational leadership and professional orientation.

Taking these propositions and theories into consideration, it is likely that the advantages of professionalism for increasing job engagement would be stronger at higher levels of transformational leadership. Teachers with higher professional identity will perceive transformational leadership as a mechanism of organizational support that enhances their work autonomy, resulting in exalted work engagement. So far, no studies have examined the moderating effect of transformational leadership in explaining their relationship, especially in a Korean education setting.

Hypothesis 4: The relationship between professionalism and work engagement will be positively moderated by transformational leadership.

Interaction Between Openness to Change and Transformational Leadership

People who are open to change are actively involved in finding the meaning of changes and are affectively committed to cooperating with new organizational goals. They have positive attitudes and behaviors toward change initiatives and implementations, and adjust their behaviors accordingly, which is likely to have a positive influence on their work engagement.

Choi ([ 19] ) argued that the construct of openness to change should be considered as a state, rather than personal trait, in that it fluctuates according to the environment in which a person is situated. Many researchers (e.g., Miller, Johnson, & Grau, [ 65] ; Wanberg & Banas, [ 94] ) have identified several organizational factors that influence employee openness to change. They include employee involvement in the decisionmaking process, sharing of relevant information, and leader-member relationships and trust. Moreover, to effectively make changes in an organization, it is essential for top leaders to articulate an inspiring vision and give individual attention to teachers, which is in line with the characteristics of transformational leaders (Bass & Avolio, [ 12] ).

Various studies have recognized a crucial role of leadership in initiating changes and identifying and implementing relevant strategies and plans (Caldwell, Chatman, O'Reilly, Ormiston, & Lapiz, [ 17] ; Lyons et al., [ 61] ). Leaders are capable of facilitating followers' behaviors and attitudes as they engage in, or commit to, efforts to make changes by providing a vision, creating a sense of urgency around the change, and supporting the change (Lyons et al., [ 61] ). In particular, it was found that transformational leadership is significantly related to less resistance from followers to change and more commitment to change (Lyons et al., [ 61] ). Additionally, Bommer, Rich, and Rubin ([ 13] ) found that transformational leadership behaviors have a negative association with employee cynicism in a change context. Transformational leaders are viewed as excellent facilitators of the change process, and transformational leadership is primarily concerned with leaders' capability to enact change (Eisenbach, Watson, & Pillai, [ 28] ). In this sense, teachers demonstrating an identical level of openness to change may have different levels of work engagement because of the influences that transformational principals have on teachers, which is supported by social cognitive theory. As the theory of PE fit implies, it is likely that the moderating role of transformational leadership will be positive on the relationship between followers' openness to change and work engagement. Despite the clear arguments about the intertwined influence of transformational leadership on openness to change and work engagement, no studies have examined the moderating effect of transformational leadership in explaining their relationship.

Hypothesis 5: The relationship between openness to change and work engagement will be positively moderated by transformational leadership.

Based on the theoretical framework described above, we developed the research model, as shown in Figure [NaN] .

Methods

In this section, we describe the population and sample; data collection procedures; the instrument, including reliability and validity; and data analysis.

Sample and Data

The target population was teachers in Korea. For the data collection process, a total of 59 high schools were randomly selected based on lists of high schools from the Ministry of Education. In this sample school selection, voluntary agreement was obtained from the principal of each school. Along with the cooperation of the former director of Ministry of Education and the principals of the participating schools, 2,814 teachers (approximately 40 teachers in each school) were randomly invited to take part in this study. A total of 1,886 teachers agreed to participate in the survey, resulting in a response rate of 67%. In terms of the demographic information of the participants, about 25% were 35 years old or less, 27% were between 36 and 45 years old, and approximately 48% were 46 or older; approximately 56% of the participants were female. For work experience, about 34% of the participants had worked for 10 years or less; 24%, 11 to 20 years; and approximately 42%, 21 years or more. With respect to education level, 56% had collegelevel degrees and 44% had graduatelevel degrees. In terms of public versus private schools, 87% of the participating schools were public, and 13% were private.

Variables and InstrumentsWork Engagement (WE)

The short version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES9; Schaufeli et al., [ 80] ) was employed to measure work engagement. The UWES9 contains three key dimensions of teacher work engagementvigor, dedication, and absorptioneach of which is captured by three items. The total scores, which capture overall work engagement, were calculated for the analyses. The threedimensional work engagement measure has been validated in the Korean school context showing acceptable reliability ( =.85) and factor structure (Song, Bae, Park, & Kim, [ 85] ). A sample item is "My job inspires me," and a 5point Likert scale was utilized for all of the items (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The internal consistency of this measure in the current research was.93. The construct validity of the threefactor model was confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) (chisquare [²] ( 24) = 312.60, p <.001; comparative fit index [CFI] =.95; root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] =.08; standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] =.03).

Teacher Professionalism (PF)

This study adopted a professionalism questionnaire developed and validated by Talbert and McLaughlin ([ 89] ), which measures three dimensions of professionalism: technical culture, service ethic, and professional commitment. Overall, the instrument measures the level of autonomy and competency of teachers to deliver quality service, such as caring for each student, promoting student achievement, and developing teaching materials. Fifteen items of this instrument were utilized in this study, and the internal consistency in the current sample was 0.86. A sample item is "I am always eager to hear about ways to improve my teaching," and a 5point Likert scale was utilized (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The construct validity of the threefactor model was confirmed (²( 87) = 865.35, p <.001; CFI =.91; RMSEA =.07; SRMR =.05).

Openness to Change (OC)

Five items designed and validated by Miller et al. ([ 65] ) were used to measure teachers' perceptions of innovation and change in the process of their daily work. This instrument examined the level of teachers' willingness to adapt to change initiatives and new work processes, which were considered key determinants for innovative and voluntary work engagement. A sample item is "I think that the implementation of work teams will have a positive effect on how I accomplish my work," and a 5point Likert scale was utilized for all of the items (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The internal consistency of this measure was.91, and the construct validity was confirmed (²( 4) = 22.85, p <.001; CFI =.99; RMSEA =.05; SRMR =.01).

Transformational Leadership (TL)

The short version of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire ([MLQ]; Bass & Avolio, [ 12] ) was used to measure transformational leadership. The instrument has been recognized as the most widely utilized and validated measure across different cultures (Vinger & Cilliers, [ 93] ). The MLQ contains 12 items capturing four domains of transformational leader behavior: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Several empirical studies have confirmed the reliability and intercorrelations among the subdimensions (e.g., Sheer & Chen, [ 82] ; Song et al., [ 85] ). In addition, this instrument has been used in the Korean school context, showing statistically reasonable reliability ( =.80) and validity (RMSEA =.064; CFI =.99) (Song et al., [ 85] ). A sample item is, "Our principal helps us find meaning in work," and a 5point Likert scale was utilized for all of the items (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The internal consistency in the current sample was.96. CFA was conducted to confirm the construct validity of the fourfactor model (²( 48) = 232.24, p <.001; CFI =.99; RMSEA =.05; SRMR =.02).

Control Variables

Five covariates were controlled for the multilevel analyses. The teacher's gender (Gender) (0 = female, 1 = male), length of service (Work1) (1 = less than 10 years, 2 = 11-20 years, 3 = 21-30 years, 4 = more than 31 years), length of service at the current school (Work2) (1 = less than 1 year, 2 = 2 years, 3 = 3 years, 4 = 4 years, 5 = more than 5 years) and academic background (Edu) (1 = college graduate, 2 = master degree, 3 = doctoral degree) were controlled at level 1. School type (Type) (0 = public, 1 = private) was controlled at level 2.

Data Analysis

We employed multilevel path analysis using Mplus 7.0 (Muthn & Muthn, 1998-2012) to honor the nested structure of the data (Turner, [ 92] ) as teachers were nested within schools. The current study examined how teacherlevel (level1) (i.e., openness to change and teacher professionalism) and schoollevel (level2) (i.e., transformational leadership) variables influence a teacherlevel outcome variable (i.e., teacher's work engagement), and how a schoollevel variable moderates teacherlevel relationships (Hox, 2010), Following the 50/20 rule (50 groups with 20 individuals per group; Hox, 2010), the sample size of the current study is adequate to estimate the crosslevel moderating effects with a twolevel linear model as the final dataset comprised 59 schools and 1,886 teachers, with an average of 31.97 teachers per school.

Common Method Variance

Considering the use of the selfperception based survey, we tested for the presence of common method bias. Following the statistical approaches proposed by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff ([ 73] ), both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and CFA were conducted, and the results suggested that common method bias was most likely a mild issue in the present study. The EFA results showed more than one factor can be retrieved and the first factor explained only 38.47% of the total variance. The CFA results showed that the test of the fourfactor model provided better fit indices [² (773) = 6691.63; CFI =.89; RMSEA =.06; SRMR =.05] than the model fit of the onefactor model [² (779) = 25002.39; CFI =.57; RMSEA =.13; SRMR =.14]. In addition, the chisquare difference test result showed that the fourfactor model outperformed the onefactor model in fit to the data [² ( 6) = 18310.76, p <.001], indicating that the constructs of work engagement, openness to change, professionalism, and transformational leadership were unlikely loaded on one single factor but on four distinct factors.