From the standpoint of a research psychologist who is thinking scientifically, how would you design a study to evaluate the following claims that are sometimes made about the use of deception in research? That is, what kinds of empirical data would you like to have in order to judge the truth of the claims?

1. Deception should never be used in psychological research because once people have been deceived in a study, they will no longer trust any psychologist.

2. Researchers could avoid deception by instructing subjects to imagine they are in a deception study and then behave as they think a typical person would.

3. Psychologists are just fooling themselves; most participants see right through their deceptions and quickly understand the true purpose of a study.

4. Deception seldom works in research with university students, because they talk to each other about the studies in which they have participated and tell each other the “true” purpose of the studies.