13.55 High school athletic participation and correlation: Researchers examined longitudinal data to explore the long-term effects of high school athletic participation in the United States (Lutz et al., 2009). They reported three findings. First, they found that high school athletic participation was related to a number of positive outcomes. These included increases in high school grade-point average, university completion, earnings as an adult, and various positive health behaviors. Second, they found that a number of other variables affected the relation between high school athletic participation and these positive outcomes; these other variables included race, gender, and type of school (e.g., public, private). Third, they found that high school athletic participation was related to several negative outcomes among male athletes; these included increases in alcohol consumption, sexist and homophobic attitudes, and violence.

a. How might high school athletic participation be operationalized as a nominal variable? Be specific.

b. How might high school athletic participation be operationalized as a scale variable? Be specific.

c. Why might correlation be a useful tool with data like those used in this study? (Assume the use of scale variables.)

d. Did the researchers report positive correlations? If yes, list at least two. Explain why these are positive correlations.

e. Did the researchers report negative correlations? If yes, list at least two. Explain why these are negative correlations.

f. Use the A-B-C model to offer three different causal explanations for the correlation between high school athletic participation and positive health behaviors.