Teachers often disagree when it comes to their grading philosophies. Some contend that the fair way to grade is to put significant weight on the effort put in by a student. Others say that fairness requires that grades be based largely on objective measures of academic performance such as exam and assignment grades.

Still others believe that grades should reflect the “value-added” (that is, change in academic performance) of students from the beginning to the end of the grading period. Discuss the merits and pitfalls of each of these views, including the incentives they create for individual student behavior.