Carlos is pulling an all-nighter in preparation for his big psychology test tomorrow. According to the research, what is the result on Carlos’s memory when he deprives himself of sleep the night prior to his exam?

a. Carlos will retain information from staying up all night, but only if his test is early in the morning.

b. Carlos will actually remember less if he deprives himself of sleep the night before.

c. The ability to retain information can be influenced by the presence of sunlight. Thus, if the sun is shining, Carlos will remember more than if it is a cloudy day.

d. Carlos’s memory will not be affected in any way, assuming he only stays awake for one all-night study session.