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"Our exploration of motor development in childhood begins with a focus on developmental changes in gross motor skills, and then we examine the role of sports in children's development.

Developmental Changes Unlike a 2-year-old, the older preschool child no longer has to make an effort to stay upright and to move around. As children move their legs with more confidence and carry themselves more purposefully, moving around in the environment becomes more automatic. At 3 years of age, children enjoy simple movements, such as hopping, jumping, and running back and forth, just for the sheer delight of performing these activities. They take considerable pride in showing how they can run across a room and jump all of 6 inches. The run-and-jump will win no Olympic gold medals, but for the 3-year-old the activity is a source of pride. At 4 years of age, children are still enjoying the same kind of activities, but they have become more adventurous. They scramble over low jungle gyms as they display their athletic prowess. Although they have been able to climb stairs with one foot on each step for some time, they are just beginning to be able to come down the same way. At 5 years of age, children are even more adventuresome than they were at 4. It is not unusual for self-assured 5-year-olds to perform hair-raising stunts on practically any climbing object. They run hard and enjoy races with each other and their parents."

"During middle and late childhood, children's motor development becomes much smoother and more coordinated than it was in early childhood. For example, only one child in a thousand can hit a tennis ball over the net at the age of 3, yet by the age of 10 or 11 most children can learn to play the sport. Running, climbing, skipping rope, swimming, bicycle riding, and skating are just a few of the many physical skills elementary school children can master. And, when mastered, these physical skills are a source of great pleasure and a sense of accomplishment. Several research studies of children and adolescents have revealed that those who are more physically fit have a better mastery of motor skills (Weedon & others, 2018). In gross motor skills involving large-muscle activity, Page 139boys usually outperform girls on average, although there is a wide range of skills within both genders that overlaps. As children move through the elementary school years, they gain greater control over their bodies and can sit and pay attention for longer periods of time. However, elementary school children are far from being physically mature, and they need to be active. Elementary school children become more fatigued by long periods of sitting than by running, jumping, or bicycling (Walton-Fisette & Wuest, 2018). Physical action is essential for these children to refine their developing skills, such as batting a ball, skipping rope, or balancing on a beam. Children benefit from exercise breaks several times during the school day. For example, cross-cultural research on school-age children in Greece, Italy, and Norway revealed national differences in fine and gross motor skills that were influenced in part by cultural differences in physical activities and attitudes about exercise (Haga & others, 2018). In sum, children should be engaged in active, rather than passive, activities, because of many benefits to not only motor development and physical health but also cognitive functioning and overall well-being (Hillman, Erickson, & Hatfield, 2017)."

"Organized sports are one way of encouraging children to be active and to develop their motor skills. Schools and community agencies offer programs for children that involve baseball, soccer, football, basketball, swimming, gymnastics, and other sports. For children who participate in them, these programs may play a central role in their lives. Page 141Participation in sports can have both positive and negative consequences for children (Foss & others, 2018). Participation can provide exercise and self-esteem, opportunities to learn how to compete and be persistent, and a setting for developing peer relations and friendships (Van Boekel & others, 2016). Further, participating in sports reduces the likelihood that children will become obese (Lee, Pope, & Gao, 2018). One study of Australian children and teens revealed that youth who participated in organized sports activities were far more physically active and less likely to be overweight than their nonparticipating counterparts (Telford & others, 2016). However, sports also can bring pressure to achieve and win, physical injuries and burnout, and stressful expectations for success as an athlete (Foss & others, 2018; Pelka & Kellmann, 2017). The Caring Connections interlude examines the roles of parents and coaches in children's sports.

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