Answer the following questions after reading the article provided: what can be done to help us to understand gender identity development beyond the research in the textbook? How can a theorist help us understand gender identity development? What are some ways that support could be given to a friend, colleague, or family member who identifies as nonbinary? How does gender identity development apply to any of the following programmatic themes.

• Self-care
• Social justice
• Emotional intelligence
• Career connections
• Ethics

1:091 irnals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu C Check for updates Original Article Emerging Adulthood 2017. Vol. 5(2) 93-105 Applying the Master Narrative Framework 2016 Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood to Gender Identity Development and SAGE Publishing Reprints and permission in Emerging Adulthood sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1 177/2167696816656254 journals.sagepub.com/home/eax SAGE Kate C. Mclean', Hannah Shucard', and Moin Syed2 Abstract We applied a novel framework to identity development, capturing both content and process, and personal and cultural com- ponents of identity in the content domain of gender. We examined master (and alternative) narratives: ubiquitous, powerful cultural stories with which individuals negotiate in constructing personal identity. Study I was a quantitative investigation of personal narratives about gender (n = 245); Study 2 was a qualitative study of discourse processes concerning gender roles (n = 12). Employing three approaches to identity development (status, narrative, and discursive) in a mixed methods design, we found that most individuals position themselves around a newer, alternative narrative about gender equality. However, in social interactions, this narrative got less airtime, in favor of narratives representing either traditional views or gender equality. Further, those who were exploring their identities were more likely to employ the less traditional narrative, suggesting a link between changing master narratives and personal identity exploration. Keywords identity development, emerging adulthood, master narratives, gender identity Identity development is the major psychosocial task of adoles- and personal and cultural aspects of identity: narrative, identity cence and emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000; Erikson, 1968; status, and discursive approaches. McLean & Syed, 2015). However, our current understanding of identity development is limited by at least two issues: insuf- ficient attention to the content of identity development Three Approaches to the Study (Mclean, Syed, & Shucard, in press; Mclean, Syed, Yoder, of Identity Development & Greenhoot, 2014; Syed & Azmitia, 2010), and insufficient Erikson (1968) proposed that a major psychosocial task that attention to how personal and cultural aspects of identity inter- takes center stage during adolescence and emerging adulthood sect (Hammack, 2011; McLean & Syed, 2016; Way & Rogers, 2015). An examination of the process tells us how individuals is that of defining oneself. To Erikson, this meant constructing a sense of felt coherence across time, context, and within one's are developing, whereas an examination of content tells us culture (see also Syed & Mclean, 2016b). As we detail below, what is developing. When examining both process and content, the two most common contemporary approaches to identity it becomes clear that identity contents are culturally defined development have emphasized the processes of identity devel- and that different processes are required for managing different opment, with less empirical effort attending to the content, or contents. Thus, attention to both personal and cultural compo- object, of those processes. Both of these approaches have also ments, and the processes and contents, of identity development emphasized the personal aspects of identity development, with are necessary for a full understanding of the phenomenon. less attention to the cultural context of identity development In the present studies, our aim was to apply a recent frame- (cf. Hammack, 2008). This is a notable gap because Erikson work (Mclean & Syed, 2016) that captures the intersection of (1968) conceptualized identity development as a process of personal identity narratives and cultural master narratives within one specific content domain: gender identity. This framework captures the processes of negotiation with and internalization "Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, USA of larger cultural structures, which in this case were conceptions University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA of and beliefs about gender. In applying this framework, we took an integrative approach by employing what have been Corresponding Author: Kate C. Mclean, PhD, Western Washington University, 516 High Street, relatively divergent perspectives to the study of identity develop- MS 9172, Bellingham, WA 98225, USA. ment, each with differing emphases on both content and process, Email: kate.mclean@wwu.edu 94 Emerging Adulthood 5(2) renegotiating childhood identifications as one becomes aware the "doing," or performing, of identity (Korobov, 2010). In a of the structures in which one is living, and how to live within study examining how adolescent boys construct masculinity, those structures. However, the third approach (i.e., discursive) Korobov and Bamberg (2004) argued that flexibly positioning has examined culture more clearly, through focusing more on oneself around gendered master narratives reflected mature the enactment of identities at particular moments, rather than developmental processes. This approach is in particular con- the personal continuity emphasized by Erikson. The framework trast to survey measures that do not allow for this kind of we provide captures these aspects of Erikson's original theory, dynamic observation of culturally valued and mediated pro- and we employ each approach in our methodology for a fully cesses (Korobov & Bamberg, 2004). In Study 2, we employ integrative examination of identity development. We apply our this perspective, but note that we do not adopt all components framework to the content domain gender identity, which has of it, as we see these master narrative positions as leading clear relevance to intersections of personal and cultural experi- toward internalization (McLean & Syed, 2016), rather than as ences. We briefly review each of these approaches below and relatively fleeting "performances." then present our integrative framework. The Identity Status Approach The Master Narrative Framework for Identity Development1:091 journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu those structures. However, the third approach (1.e., discursive) Korobov and Bamberg (2004) argued that flexibly positioning has examined culture more clearly, through focusing more on oneself around gendered master narratives reflected mature the enactment of identities at particular moments, rather than developmental processes. This approach is in particular con- emphasized by Erikson. The framework trast to survey measures that do not allow for this kind of 2 of 13 e aspects of Erikson's original theory, dynamic observation of culturally valued and mediated pro- proach in our methodology for a fully cesses (Korobov & Bamberg, 2004). In Study 2, we employ of identity development. We apply our this perspective, but note that we do not adopt all components ent domain gender identity, which has of it, as we see these master narrative positions as leading clear relevance to intersections of personal and cultural experi- toward internalization (McLean & Syed, 2016), rather than as ences. We briefly review each of these approaches below and relatively fleeting "performances." then present our integrative framework. The Master Narrative Framework The Identity Status Approach for Identity Development The identity status literature captures the personal processes of identity exploration and commitment, which are predominantly In examining the contemporary literature, and its divergent assessed via survey measures (Crocetti & Meeus, 2015; Kun- approaches, we have recently argued that master narratives nen & Metz, 2015). Identity content, and thus cultural context provide a framework for examining the personal and the cul- and structures, has been relatively overlooked in this work. tural, and process and content, as they are all relevant to iden- Exceptions include research driven by interview assessments, tity development (Mclean & Syed, 2016; see also Mclean, which allow contents to be more fully elaborated by partici- 2015; Syed & Mclean, 2016b). Master narratives are culturally pants, and which shows that cultural structures are reflected shared stories that provide guidance for how to belong to, and in personal identities (Kunnen & Metz, 2015). For example, be a good member of, a given culture; they are useful frame- Archer (1989) found that adolescent females engaged in more works that guide personal story construction. Two processes identity exploration in the domain of family roles than did link personal and master narratives: Individuals negotiate with males (see also Frisen & Wangqvist, 2011). master narratives in constructing their own stories, which leads to the internalization of master narratives as part of one's iden- tity. In other words, using a master narrative framework allows Narrative Approaches is to understand personal identity development as a process of Narrative approaches focus on the construction of a personal "narrative engagement" (Hammack & Cohler, 2009), in which life story, a selective and subjective reconstruction of the per- individuals negotiate with and internalize master narratives as sonal past that serves to define the self (McAdams & Mclean, parts of their identities. 2013). Like the status literature, the content of gender has been Yet, these identity processes are not entirely governed by relatively neglected here, though the examination of sex differ- the individual (Mclean & Syed, 2016). There is a power to ences in narrative construction is more prevalent. For example, master narratives stemming from their historical weight and in constructing personal stories, females are more elaborating ubiquitous use, which motivates community members to fit than are males (e.g., Pasupathi & Wainryb, 2010; Zaman & in to earn acceptance from others. Indeed, these narratives are Fivush, 2011; see Grysman & Hudson, 2013, for a review). relatively rigid and can thus constrain the individual, which is However, researchers have recently argued that it is not being made particularly apparent when the master narrative does not male or female that matters for narrative construction, but how provide a framework that aligns with one's own experience. one identifies oneself in relation to cultural norms and expecta- This makes the negotiation process quite conscious, and chal- tions about being male or female, or how gender-typical one is lenging, as individuals seek alternative narratives to guide per- (e.g., Grysman & Hudson, 2013; Grysman, Merrill, & Fivush, sonal story construction. As we articulate below, gender is a 2016). prime identity content to which we can apply this framework within the United States because of the long-standing differen- Discursive Approaches tial power conferred to males and females, paired with ongoing discourse and social policies that emphasize gender equality. Similar to the narrative perspective, discursive approaches Thus, in contemporary U.S. society, there is clearly potential focus not on sex differences but on how gender is constructed room for negotiation with cultural expectations about gender (e.g., Bamberg, 2004; Korobov & Bamberg, 2004). However, and identity. unlike narrative and status approaches to identity, internal and stable aspects of self are not assumed (see Thorne, 2004). Instead, researchers examine how identities are enacted in dis- Gender and Development course, as individuals "position" themselves in relation to each Traditionally, gender identity has been defined as the ways in other and to master narratives; positioning is a way to examine which people understand themselves as male or female in the Mclean et al. 95 cultural contexts in which they are developing (e.g., Wood & the content domain of gender identity. In making this applica- Eagly, 2015). Precursors to these understandings begin early tion, however, we also presumed that we would learn some- (see Leaper & Friedman, 2007; Martin, Ruble, & Szkrybalo, thing about gender identity, beyond the typical assessments 2002, for reviews). By the first year, infants can distinguish of masculinity or femininity, particularly in terms of how physical attributes that are gender linked, such as faces. By two individuals work within and with culture to understand gender years of age, toddlers employ gender labeling, and by three, as a component of their identities. they are aware of their own gender, known as gender identity. Research on gender identity in adolescence and emerging adulthood is less common than in childhood and has focused The Present Studies on gender typicality (e.g., Jewell & Brown, 2014; Smith & Lea- We addressed the relation between personal, alternative, and per, 2006), rather than identity per se. That is, whereas identity master narratives in the context of one type of master narra- development is usually conceptualized as engaging in some tive-the life-course master narrative (Mclean & Syed, kind of reflective or exploratory process of understanding var- 2016). At a basic level, many cultures have expectations about ious aspects of oneself (including gender), the research on gen- the ordering and timing of life events, such as graduation from der typicality generally assesses where one falls along the school, getting a job, entering into a committed romantic rela- dimensions of femininity and masculinity and does not capture tionship, and having children (Habermas, 2007; Rubin & Bern- processes of identity work. This disconnect between these two sten, 2003). Although the plot of expected events may be the areas of research is notable because this is the developmental same for men and women, the emphasis differs. For example, stage when identity development becomes the main psychoso- in the United States, where this research was conducted, cial task, and when awareness of larger cultural and societal although both men and women are expected to have children, structures-many of which contain messages about gender- women are expected to be more nurturing and to put more time emerges and becomes personally salient (Erikson, 1968; see and effort into this life task, and in fact do so (e.g., Sayer, Bian- also Flanagan et al., 2014; Thorne & Nam, 2007). Further, chi, & Robinson, 2004). This reflects a traditional master nar- although the identity development literature centers squarely rative, with which one may position oneself toward or against. on adolescence and emerging adulthood, somewhat ironically, However, identifying master narratives is not so easy. In a researchers here have left gender relatively underexamined in prior study, we examined identity contents in a variety of per- comparison to other domains of identity, such as ethnic identity sonally important identity narratives in samples of college stu- (e.g., Umana-Taylor et al., 2014), or content domains such as dents from three very different campuses (with data collected religion or relationships (e.g., Mclean et al., 2014; Mclean, 10 years apart). We found no mention of the content of gender Syed, & Shucard, 2016). Thus, we situated this study in emer- across 2,214 narratives (in comparison to the other status con- ging adulthood, a time when individuals are exploring cultu- tent domains such as family, dating, and values; Mclean et al., rally salient adult roles such as family and work-related 2014; see also Azmitia, Syed, & Radmacher, 2008). That is, issues (see Mayseless & Keren, 2014), which are tightly linked gender did not emerge as an explicit part of the content of their to gender norms (e.g., Archer, 1989; Frisen & Wangqvist, past experiences. We speculated that there may be a new nar- 2011; Shulman, Laursen, & Dickson, 2014). rative about gender equality that diminishes experiences in As we discussed above, although the domain of gender has which gender is made salient. For example, people may be been relatively underexamined in emerging adult identity either experiencing equality or not attending to inequality to research, all approaches to identity development share the idea preserve an alternative to the master narrative-the equality that engagement with this domain is developmentally impor- narrative-in which the expectations for men and women are tant. That is, identity exploration, and women are now the same, the1:09 journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu to gender norms (e.g., Archer, 1989, Frisen & Wangqvist, past experiences. we speculated that there may be a new nar- 2011; Shulman, Laursen, & Dickson, 2014). rative about gender equality that diminishes experiences in As we discussed above, although the domain of gender has which gender is made salient. For example, people may be xamined in emerging adult identity either experiencing equality or not attending to inequality to 4 of 13 to identity development share the idea preserve an alternative to the master narrative-the equality his domain is developmentally impor- narrative-in which the expectations for men and women are xploration, narrative elaboration, and the same. That is, if men and women are now the same, the are indicative of more mature identity issue has become obsolete and is not a part of the conversation. development. All approaches also complement each other by However, without directly asking about gender, this explanat differentially targeting cultural and personal processes; there- tion remains untested. fore, combining them creates an integrative framework for In the present studies, we explicitly addressed internaliza- studying identity development. tion of and negotiation with master narratives as identity pro- We examined both personal processes related to the devel- cesses. In Study 1, we examined what master and alternative opment of gender identity, and how those personal processes narratives were internalized in telling personally important were linked to master narratives. In Study 1, we focused on stories about gender. We also examined how narrative posi- processes of internalization by identifying master and alterna- tions were related to identity processes. In Study 2, we exam- tive narratives in individuals' personal stories and examined ined how personal stories were used in negotiating with whether internalization of these different narratives was master and alternative narratives, particularly attending to pro- related to processes of personal identity development. In cesses that might influence the rigidity or flexibility of master Study 2, we focused on negotiation by examining how per- and alternative narratives. sonal stories are used to negotiate with master narratives Beyond identifying master narrative positions, in Study 1, about gender in a conversational context. We emphasize that we also wanted to identify characteristics of the narratives that our intention was to apply the master narrative framework to reflected each position, using several standard narrative coding 96 Emerging Adulthood 5(2) systems relevant to identity processes. We coded the personal Measures meaning made of the events as a measure of narrative identity development (e.g., Mclean & Pratt, 2006) as well as the affect The Ego Identity Process Questionnaire (EIPQ). The EIPQ is a 32- tive valence of the events. Affect may be important because item survey to assess identity exploration and commitment more negative, or disruptive, experiences are more likely to across eight domains that are ideological (occupation, religion, prompt identity processes such as exploration or meaning- politics, values) or interpersonal (friendship, dating, sex roles, making (e.g., McLean & Thorne, 2003) and are also moments family; e.g., "My ideas about men's and women's roles have in which discursive processes reveal personal and cultural ten- never changed as I became older"; "I have definite views sions (Korobov & Bamberg, 2004). We also examined the regarding the ways in which men and women should behave"; degree to which participants experienced these events as Balistreri, Busch-Rossnagel, & Geisinger, 1995). We used the reflecting a stable aspect of who they are versus a reflection overall Exploration and Commitment Scale, and the Sex Roles of personal change. Although both are important to a sense subscale (as range = .71-.74). Surveys assessing personality of personal continuity (Pasupathi, Brubaker, & Mansour, traits and well-being were also administered but were not 2007), they reflect different ways of conceptualizing identity examined in the present study. development and, critically, master narrative change may be related to these personal processes of change and stability Narrative prompts. Participants completed eight narratives for (Mclean & Syed, 2016). Due to the lack of gender content each of the EIPQ domains, counterbalancing ideological and in our previous study, we were also motivated to code the interpersonal, though we only examine sex role narratives. degree of narrative specificity, and whether the narrated event Prompts were modeled on McAdams' (2006) guided autobio- was one's own experience or someone else's. That is, if indi- graphy task: viduals do indeed have a difficult time recalling gender- related experiences, as our previous results suggest (Mclean Please think of an important autobiographical memory that high- et al., 2016; Mclean et al., 2014), determining the quality of lights experiences with sex roles; that is, the roles that men and these recollections in terms of how specific they were, as well women should play in the world. Please take your time, and describe your memory of the event, including where you were, whom you as whether they were actual personal experiences, seemed were with, what happened, your reaction, the reaction of anyone else warranted. involved in the event, and why it is important to you. Study I After each narrative, participants answer 18 Likert-type items (scale ranged 1-7) about the event. These questions were drawn Method from prior work aimed at assessing conscious representations of the relations between self and event (e.g., Pasupathi et al., 2015). The data on which Study 1 are based are part of a larger study Those questions concerning the stability or change in self-views on narrative identity content (Mclean et al., 2016; Syed & were condensed into two factors representing self-stability (e.g., McLean, 2016a). "The kind of person I am explains why this experience happened the way it did"; o = .80) and self-change (e.g., "This experience Participants really changed the kind of person I am-caused me to become a Participants were 245 American college students (mean different type of person"; a = .74). age = 19.39, SD = 2.80; 75% women; 73% White). Eighteen percent of participants had mothers and fathers with a high Narrative Coding school degree or less, 36% of mothers and 34% of fathers had some college, 28% of mothers and 27% of fathers had a The second author coded all narratives for position, specificity, bachelor of arts (BA), and 17% of mothers and 21% of fathers and personal connection. Two research assistants, blind to had more than a BA. Data on sexual orientation, or whether study aims, completed reliability on 25% of the narratives. participants were cisgender or transgender, were not collected. Meaning and valence were coded for the initial project by three esearch assistants, blind to study aims, who had acceptable Procedure eliability with a trained graduate student (10% of cases). Coders checked 20% of their codes with each other to prevent Participants were recruited from undergraduate psychology coder drift and discussed difficult cases with the trained grad- courses, which serve a variety of students for general educa- uate student to reach consensus (Syed & Nelson, 2015) tion requirements as well as those who are, or intend to be, psychology majors. After providing informed consent, parti- Master narrative positions. The first and second author, in consul- cipants wrote narratives and completed surveys in a room tation with the third author, conducted exhaustive reviews of all alone (written with Empirisoft, 2008; Media Lab v2008). narratives to develop a coding system to identify master narra- Once finished, participants were debriefed, thanked, and tive positions. Given the prompt, and the historical weight of given course credit for participation, which took an average the "traditional" gender narrative, this was termed the master of 1.5-2 hr. narrative, defined by the view that men and women have Mclean et al. 97 separate, and traditional, roles, reflecting a clear power differ- Table I. Descriptive Statistics for Study | Variables. ential. For example, for men, these roles include being bread- winners, more powerful, and stronger; and for women, these Mean (SD) % roles include being submissive, nurtur 1.11 (1.35) ditional position was the starting point of negotiation, such that Beginning valence .92 (.50)1:09 journals-sagepub-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu cipants wrote narratives and completed surveys in a room tation with the third author, conducted exhaustive reviews of all alone (written with Empirisoft, 2008; Media Lab v2008). narratives to develop a coding system to identify master narra- ~ . . . ipants were debriefed, thanked, and tive positions. Given the prompt, and the historical weight of participation, which took an average the "traditional" gender narrative, this was termed the master 5 of 13 narrative, defined by the view that men and women have Mclean et al. 97 separate, and traditional, roles, reflecting a clear power differ- Table I. Descriptive Statistics for Study | Variables. ential. For example, for men, these roles include being bread- Mean (SD) % winners, more powerful, and stronger; and for women, these roles include being submissive, nurturing, and weaker. This tra- Meaning 1.1 1 (1.35) ditional position was the starting point of negotiation, such that Beginning valence 1.92 (.50) individuals could align themselves with it, or use an alternative End valence 1.89 (.58) narrative, the latter of which took two forms. The first, which Identity exploration 4.10 (.57) we termed the equality narrative, was in direct contrast to the Sex roles 3.69 (1.20) 3.95 (.61) traditional narrative and was defined as "same," such that the Identity commitment Sex roles 3.12 (1.14) events in the narratives were about men and women playing Master narrative position interchangeable roles (e.g., men and women can do the same Traditional things or that men can be nurturing or women can be physically Equality strong). The second alternative position was the "should-be- Should-be-equal equal" narrative. In these narratives, the event recalled was Episodic often an experience of sexism, or a story structured around the Generic continued (unjust) influence of the traditional narrative. Relia- Episodic Specific bility was acceptable for positions (K = .71, 81% agreement). Other Personal connection Specificity. Using an established coding system (Singer & Direct Blagov, 2000), narratives were identified as generic, in which Bystander no specific event was disclosed (e.g., "My mom always used Not present to cook dinner."); episodic, in which the event extended over a period longer than a day (e.g., "The summer after high school I learned how to cook."); specific, in which a specific, not included in analyses concerning positions taken (n = 6 one-time event was reported (The day I graduated from high overlapping between these categories). school, I cooked dinner for my boyfriend.); or as a nonnarra- tive, in which commentary was provided but no past event, the Results and Discussion latter of which were dropped from analyses (k = .90, 93% agreement). Descriptive Statistics Means and percentages for all narrative variables and survey Degree of personal connection. This code was developed for the measures can be found in Table 1. The majority of the narra- purposes of this study to identify whose story was being told tives were coded as employing the should-be-equal position, and was coded only on specific and episodic narratives. The followed by the "equality" and traditional positions. The range was one (reporter was directly involved in the event as majority were also specific memory narratives, followed by a main protagonist), two (reporter was a bystander to the episodic and generic. Most narratives were about events in event), to three (the narrative was about someone else's expe which the reporter was directly involved, so we created a bin- rience, which the reporter did not witness; k = .87, 94% ary variable (direct vs. nondirect involvement) due to these agreement). low base rates. Meaning-making. Each of the memory narratives was coded for Master Narrative Use: Demographics sophistication of meaning on a four-point scale (Mclean & Pratt, 2006). A zero indicated no explanation of the meaning There was a marginally significant difference in narrative use of the event. Narratives were scored as one if there was a spe- by sex, x (2, n = 243) = 5.73, p= .06, v= .15. Men were more cific lesson that the reporter learned from the event. A score of likely (ASR = 2.3) than women to use the traditional narrative. two was assigned to narratives that contained vague meaning; There were no significant differences in narrative use by ethnic narratives of this sort describe some growth or change in the city (White vs. non-White), x = 1.85. There were no signifi- self, but the specifics of the change are not clear. Narratives cant differences in master narrative use by parent educational were scored as three if there was evidence that the reporter status (* = 6.21) or age (F = 1.00). gleaned specific and broad insight from the event (intraclass =. 83-.89). Master Narrative Characteristics A single repeated measures analysis of variance showed a Valence. Narratives were coded for affective valence by captur- significant main effect of narrative position on beginning and ing the beginning and end of the narrative as positive, neutral, end valence, F(2, 243) = 17.21, p