CH A P TER 3 Learning and Motivation Chapter Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to: NEL define learning and describe learning outcomes describe the three stages of learning and Kolb's learning styles describe conditioning theory and social cognitive theory and their implications for training and development describe adult learning theory and its implications for training and development define motivation and describe need and process theories of motivation and their implications for training and development describe the differences between mastery and performance goals and between distal and proximal goals and their implications for training and development define training motivation and discuss its predictors and consequences describe the variables in the model of training effectiveness and how they relate to learning and retention 63 Canadian Cancer Society The Ontario Division of the Canadian Cancer Society recently decided to take a more strategic approach to its on-boarding program. The division has hundreds of employees and thousands of volunteers across Ontario. Senior staff at the society consulted with key groups including the executive team, regional employees, and recent hires so that they could customize an approach that resonates with new hires. One of the objectives of the new program was to reduce voluntary turnover by equipping new hires with a greater understanding of and connection to the work of the society as a whole. The on-boarding program contains many elements. One part focuses on \"foundation knowledge\" to provide every new hire, regardless of position or level, a consistent understanding of the society including things such as key people, portfolios, and programs. Another important element is experience. A new hire needs to engage in certain activities to develop the partnerships and personal insights critical to early visibility, credibility, and success. Thought was also given to the timing of different on-boarding activities so the process unfolds in a logical and integrated way throughout the first year of employment. The activities are incorporated into detailed checklists to promote a consistent experience and ensure all elements are covered. To help guide new employees through the organization's massive intranet, a typical volunteer named Ray was selected as a guide. Through his story as both a volunteer and cancer survivor, Ray helps the new hire absorb informationmission, cancer research and statistics, organization structure, and fundraising activitiesin a more logical, dynamic, and memorable way. For example, Ray talks about his community work and his family's participation in the Canadian Cancer Society Relay for Life, a national fundraising event. He then invites the new hire to click on appropriate links to drill deeper into fundraising information. Ray's story reinforces the importance of volunteers and provides the perspectives of both a client and volunteer. Because of the importance of developing quality relationships early in a new employee's tenure, the society also developed a series of discussion guides to help new employees, their managers, and their internal and external clients talk about mutual expectations. In one guide, a new hire and her manager ask each other a set of questions to help define the \"soft\" side of the working relationship. Another guide helps the new employee interview key clients to understand their 64 Managing Performance Through Training and Development NEL priorities and expectations. This helps the employee take action and establish credibility early on. Another part of the experience is learning how the society's work touches the lives of Canadians. Whether it is a visit to a regional cancer centre, participating in one of many fundraising activities, or sitting in on a call from a cancer patient in the call centre, new employees gain a personal understanding of how the society operates. The end result is that every employee and volunteer feels empowered to be an ambassador in their community by being able to talk from the heart based on their own experiences.1 The Canadian Cancer Society's new employee on-boarding program focuses on not only what new employees must learn but also how they learn, two topics that are the focus of this chapter. In Chapter 2, we discussed organizational learning and the learning organization. However, in order for organizations to learn and become learning organizations, the people in them must learn. In this chapter, we focus on how people learn and their motivation to learn. First, we define what we mean by learning and describe learning outcomes. We then discuss the stages of learning followed by a review of learning and motivation theories and their implications for training. We conclude the chapter with a model that links training and personal factors to learning, behaviour, and organizational effectiveness. What Is Learning? Although training is the focus of this book, it is important to keep in mind that what we are really trying to accomplish through training and development is learning. In other words, training is simply the means for accomplishing the goal, and the goal is learning. Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills. It involves a change of state that makes possible a corresponding change in one's behaviour. Learning is the result of experiences that enable one to exhibit newly acquired behaviours.2 Learning occurs \"when one experiences a new way of acting, thinking, or feeling, finds the new pattern gratifying or useful, and incorporates it into the repertoire of behaviours\" (p. 833).3 When a behaviour has been learned, it can be thought of as a skill. New hires and volunteers at the Ontario division of the Canadian Cancer Society acquire knowledge and understanding of the society, fundraising, developing quality relationships, interviewing clients, and how the society operates. The intent is for them to develop an understanding of and connection to the work of the society as a whole and to be an ambassador in their community. In the realm of training, the most fundamental issue is whether trainees have learned what was covered in a training program.4 But what exactly do trainees learn in training? In the next section, we describe two schemes for categorizing learning outcomes. NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation Learning The process of acquiring knowledge and skills, and a change in individual behaviour as a result of some experience 65 Learning Outcomes Learning can be described in terms of domains or outcomes of learning. Table 3.1 shows the learning outcomes of two categorization schemes. The first one is by Robert Gagn, who developed the best known classification of learning outcomes. According to Gagn, learning outcomes can be classified according to five general categories:5 1. Verbal information. Facts, knowledge, principles, and packages of information or what is known as declarative knowledge. 2. Intellectual skills. Concepts, rules, and procedures that are known as procedural knowledge. Procedural rules govern many activities in our daily lives such as driving an automobile or shopping in a supermarket. 3. Cognitive strategies. The application of information and techniques, and understanding how and when to use knowledge and information. 4. Motor skills. The coordination and execution of physical movements that involve the use of muscles; for instance, learning to swim. 5. Attitudes. Preferences and internal states associated with one's beliefs and feelings. Attitudes are learned and can be changed. However, they are considered to be the most difficult domain to influence through training.6 T a bl e 3.1 Learning Outcomes Classification Schemes Gagn's Classification Scheme Verbal information (declarative knowledge) Intellectual skills (procedural knowledge) Cognitive strategies (how and when to use information and knowledge) Motor skills (physical movements) Attitudes (internal states) Kraiger, Ford, & Salas Classification Scheme Cognitive (quantity and type of knowledge) Verbal knowledge Knowledge organization Cognitive strategies Skill-Based (technical and motor skills) Compilation (proceduralization and composition) Automaticity Affective (attitudinal and motivational) Attitudinal Motivational (goal orientation, self-efficacy, goals) Sources: Gagn, R. M. (1984). Learning outcomes and their effects: Useful categories of human performance. American Psychologist, 39, 377-385; Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E. (1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 311-328. 66 Managing Performance Through Training and Development NEL Drawing on Gagn's classification scheme, Kurt Kraiger and colleagues developed a multidimensional classification scheme of learning outcomes that includes some additional indicators of learning. Their classification scheme consists of three broad categories of learning outcomes. Each category has several more specific indicators of learning:7 1. Cognitive outcomes. The quantity and type of knowledge and the relationships among knowledge elements. This includes verbal knowledge (declarative knowledge), knowledge organization (procedural knowledge and structures for organizing knowledge or mental models), and cognitive strategies (mental activities that facilitate knowledge acquisition and application, or what is known as metacognition). 2. Skill-based outcomes. This involves the development of technical or motor skills and includes compilation (fast and fluid performance of a task as a result of proceduralization and composition) and automaticity (ability to perform a task without conscious monitoring). 3. Affective outcomes. These are outcomes that are neither cognitively based nor skills-based and include attitudinal (affective internal state that affects behaviour) and motivational outcomes (goal orientation, self-efficacy, goals). A training program can focus on one or more of the learning outcomes and, as you will see in the next section, some of the outcomes are associated with certain stages of the learning process. It is also important to realize that the extent to which a training program has an effect on any of these outcomes depends in large part on the objectives of a training program. In addition, different training methods will be more or less effective depending on the learning outcome a training program was designed to influence. According to Gagn, different instructional events and conditions of learning are required for each of the learning outcomes. Further, the learning outcomes are often interrelated, which means that changes in one might imply changes in another.8 However, regardless of the learning outcome, learning generally occurs over a period of time and progresses through a series of stages as described in the next section. Stages of Learning In the chapter-opening vignette you were told that the new on-boarding program at the Canadian Cancer Society was designed to unfold in a logical and integrated way throughout the first year of employment. This highlights the fact that learning and the acquisition of new knowledge and skills occur over a period of time and in a meaningful sequence. A theory developed by John Anderson called the Adaptive Character of Thought theory, or ACT theory, describes the learning process as it unfolds across three stages.9 According to ACT theory, learning takes place in three stages that are known as declarative knowledge, knowledge compilation, and procedural knowledge or proceduralization. NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation 67 Declarative knowledge Learning knowledge, facts, and information Knowledge compilation Integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and streamline the task Procedural knowledge The learner has mastered the task and performance is automatic and habitual 68 The first stage of learning involves learning knowledge, facts, and information, or what is known as declarative knowledge. For example, think of what it was like when you learned how to drive a car. At first, you acquired a great deal of information such as what to do when you get into the car, how to start the car and put it in gear, how to change gears if it is a standard shift, and so on. These pieces of information or units are called chunks. During this first stage of learning one must devote all of one's attention and cognitive resources to the task of learning. In other words, it is not likely that you could make a phone call, listen to the radio, or carry on a conversation during this period of learning to drive a car. This is because all of your attention and cognitive resources are required to learn the task of driving. Furthermore, your driving performance at this stage is slow and prone to errors. In the declarative stage of learning, performance is resource-dependent because all of one's attention and cognitive resources are required to learn the task. Any diversion of attention is likely to affect your learning and lower your performance. Just think of what it is like when you are in class and somebody starts talking to you. Your learning is seriously affected because you need all of your attention and cognitive resources for the task of learning. Listening or talking to somebody during class will require your attention and your learning will suffer. The second stage of learning is called knowledge compilation. Knowledge compilation involves integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and streamline the task. The learner acquires the ability to translate the declarative knowledge acquired in the first stage into action. During this stage, performance becomes faster and more accurate. For example, when learning how to drive a car, you are able to get into the car and begin to drive without having to think about every single thing you must do. In other words, what was once many single tasks or units and chunks during the declarative stage (e.g., put on your seatbelt, lock the car, adjust the seat, adjust the mirror, start the car, etc.) is now one smooth sequence of tasks. You get into the car and do all of the tasks as part of an integrated sequence. Although the attention requirements during the knowledge compilation stage are lower than the declarative stage, performance is still somewhat fragmented and piecemeal. So when you are learning to drive a car, this might mean popping the clutch from time to time and occasionally rolling backwards when on an incline, stalling the car, and so on. The final stage of learning is called procedural knowledge, or proceduralization. During this stage, the learner has mastered the task and performance is automatic and habitual. In other words, the task can now be performed without much thought. The transition from knowledge acquisition to application is complete. This is what most of us experience when we drive. We simply get into a car and drive without giving much thought to what we are doing. The task of driving becomes habitual and automatic. Because tasks at this stage can be performed with relatively little attention, it is possible to divert one's attention and cognitive resources to other tasks such as conversing with passengers or talking on the phone. Performance at this stage is fast and accurate and the task can be performed with little impairment even when attention is devoted to another task. At this stage, Managing Performance Through Training and Development NEL Table 3. 2 The Stages of Learning Stage 1 Declarative Knowledge Learning: Knowledge, facts, and information Performance: Resource-dependent Stage 2 Knowledge Compilation Learning: Integrating tasks into sequences Performance: Fragmented and piecemeal Stage 3 Procedural Knowledge Learning: Task mastery Performance: Automatic and habitual; resource-insensitive performance is said to be resource-insensitive because changes in attention will not have much of an impact on performance. See Table 3.2 for a summary of the stages of learning. IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING ACT theory has some important implications for learning and training. First, it recognizes the fact that learning is a stage-like process that involves three important stages. Second, it indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages. And third, motivational interventions might be more or less effective depending on the stage of learning. As you will learn later in the chapter, goal setting is a motivational theory with implications for training and development. However, research has shown that goal setting can be harmful to learning during the early stages of learning when all of one's attention and cognitive resources must be devoted to learning the task. During the early stages of learning, cognitive ability is more important than motivational strategies. However, when goals are set during the later stages of learning (e.g., procedural knowledge) they can have a positive effect on learning and performance. Cognitive ability becomes less important than it was during the declarative stage of learning. Thus, the effects of both cognitive ability and motivational interventions on learning and performance depend on the stage of learning.10 Learning Styles An important aspect of learning is the way in which people learn. According to David Kolb, individuals differ in terms of how they prefer to learn or what are known as learning styles. A learning style is the way in which an individual gathers information and processes and acts on it during the learning process.11 An individual's learning style is a function of the way he/she gathers information (concrete experience, or CE, and abstract conceptualization, NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation Learning style The way in which an individual gathers information and processes and evaluates it during the learning process 69 or AC) and the way he/she processes or evaluates information (active experimentation, or AE, and reflective observation, or RO). It is the combination of these \"learning modes\" that results in a learning style. People who prefer to learn through direct experience and involvement are CE types (feeling). Those who prefer to learn by thinking about issues, ideas, and concepts are AC types (thinking). If you prefer to process information by observing and reflecting on information and different points of view you are an RO type (watching). If you prefer to process information by acting on it and actually doing something to see its practical value you are an AE type (doing).12 An individual's learning style is a function of how they gather information and how they process information. For example, a converging learning style combines abstract conceptualization and active experimentation (thinking and doing). People with this learning style focus on problem solving and the practical application of ideas and theories. A diverging learning style combines concrete experience and reflective observation (feeling and watching). People with this orientation view concrete situations from different points of view and generate alternative courses of action. An assimilating style combines abstract conceptualization and reflective observation (thinking and watching). These people like to process and integrate information and ideas into logical forms and theoretical models. Finally, an accommodating learning style combines concrete experience and active experimentation (feeling and doing). People with this learning style prefer hands-on experience and like to learn by being involved in new and challenging experiences.13 Table 3.3 shows Kolb's learning styles and the associated learning modes. Although people might prefer a particular learning style, ideally people can learn best by using all four styles. In fact, Kolb notes the importance of a learning cycle in which people use each of the four modes of learning in a sequence. The learning cycle begins with concrete experience (learning by experience), followed by reflective observation (learning by reflecting), then abstract conceptualization (learning by thinking), and finally active experimentation (learning by doing). This kind of learning cycle has been shown T a bl e 3.3 Learning Styles Learning Style Learning Modes Meaning Converging Abstract conceptualization Thinking and doing and active experimentation Diverging Concrete experience and Feeling and watching reflective observation Assimilating Abstract conceptualization Thinking and watching and reflective observation Accommodating Concrete experience and Feeling and doing active experimentation 70 Managing Performance Through Training and Development NEL to improve learning and retention as well as the development of behavioural skills. Learning is most effective when all four steps in the learning cycle are part of the learning experience.14 IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING Kolb's theory has several implications for learning. First, it recognizes that people differ in how they prefer to learn. This means that a person's comfort and success in training will depend on how well the training approach matches their learning style. Thus, trainers need to be aware of these differences and design training programs to appeal to people's different learning styles. At AmeriCredit, an auto finance company in Fort Worth, Texas, course facilitators receive a report prior to a training session that allows them to adjust course delivery, content, and design based on the learning styles of the trainees.15 The use of technology in training makes it much easier to tailor learning and training to a trainee's learning style. To learn more, see Training Today 3.1, \"The Personalization of Learning.\" Second, training programs should be designed with each learning mode as part of a sequence of learning experiences. At Capital One Financial Corp., after employees are taught a new set of skills they are given work projects to implement the skills and then they must report on the experience. The approach closely mirrors Kolb's learning cycle.16 T rain in g To d ay 3 . 1 The Personalization of Learning Personalization makes theory, concepts, and content more relevant for the learner. Learning personalization includes parsing of information that is most relevant to the user based on his role, language, culture, learning style, and personal preferences. Some e-learning requires the learner to take a pre-assessment. With personalization, that pre-assessment can be presented in a specific learning style that is conducive to the individual. If the learner is more comfortable with auditory formats, the online content often will be sound-enabled or have a narrator speaking throughout the lesson. If the individual is a visual learner, then the bulk of the content may be offered with compelling visuals. Learners who speak English as a second language can take courses that contain captioning in their native language to facilitate learning. The more personalized the learning content and experiences, the more they will resonate with the learner and the greater chance that the learner will be able to recall the key lessons learned. NEL Personalization is critical in the information age because a typical worker gets hundreds of emails, dozens of instant messages, multiple phone calls, and several texts messages daily, which makes it more difficult to focus on basic tasks. In addition, the amount of time the learner has to focus on learning activities is often compromised by increased expectations, decreased staff, and increased responsibility and accountability. Thus, spending additional time in the analysis and design phases of training to identify personalization strategies could prove to be an invaluable exercise, especially if the contact time available for the learner and the learning solution is minimized. The key to successful personalization is inclusion of the target audience in the development and delivery of the content. Source: Hartley, D., & West, K. (2007, November). Taking it personally: Tailoring training for more relevance. T+D, 61 (11), 21-23. Copyright 2007. Reprinted with permission of American Society for Training & Development. Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation 71 Learning Theories Researchers have studied learning and developed a body of knowledge and theories about the learning process. Theories are important because they help us understand how people learn and how to better design training programs. In this section, we describe two theories of learning that have important implications for training: conditioning theory and social cognitive theory. Conditioning Theory The famous psychologist B. F. Skinner defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour in response to a particular stimulus or set of stimuli.17 Skinner and the behaviourist school of psychology believe that learning is a result of reward and punishment contingencies that follow a response to a stimulus. The basic idea is that a stimulus or cue is followed by a response, which is then followed by a positive or negative consequence. If the response is positively reinforced, it strengthens the likelihood that the response will occur again and that learning will result. For example, behaviourists argue that similar principles are at work when an adult submits an innovative proposal and is praised, and when a pigeon pecks a red dot and is given a pellet of food. When a response is reinforced through food, money, attention, or anything pleasurable, then the response is more likely to be repeated. If there is no reinforcement, then over time the response will cease. If the response is punished, then it will not be repeated. The conditioning process is illustrated in Figure 3.1. Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus after an act. To illustrate this concept, think of an alarm clock ringing. When you turn it off, the noise stops (the stimulus is removed). Similarly, think of your course instructor chewing out the class for not participating and threatening to start picking students at random to answer questions. When students participate, the instructor stops chewing them out and threatening to choose students at random. Thus, the response of increased class participation results in the removal of a negative stimulus. It is important to realize that negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment, in which one receives a negative consequence for doing something undesirable. In the example above, a desirable behaviour is being Fig ure 3.1 The Conditioning Process Stimulus events or cues in the environment attract our attention 72 Behaviour a response or set of responses Managing Performance Through Training and Development Consequence positive reinforcement negative reinforcement no consequence punishment NEL learned and increased (e.g., class participation) by a negative reinforcer that is removed when the desirable behaviour occurs. Managers and trainers use conditioning theory principles when they attempt to influence employee behaviour. For example, at Capital One, a financial services company in the United States, new hires attend monthly reinforcement sessions in which they discuss what they did on the job that directly relates to the skills being developed. Once the skills are mastered they are taught new skills and the reinforcement cycle continues.18 Linking desired behaviour to pleasurable consequences is based on three connected concepts: shaping, chaining, and generalization. Shaping refers to the reinforcement of each step in the process until it is mastered, and then withdrawing the reinforcer until the next step is mastered. Shaping is extremely important for learning complex behaviour. Behaviour modelling is a training method (see Chapter 6) that makes extensive use of this concept by rewarding trainees for the acquisition of separate skills performed sequentially. Chaining is the second important concept and involves the reinforcement of entire sequences of a task. During shaping, an individual learns each separate step of a task and is reinforced for each successive step. The goal, however, is to learn to combine each step and perform the entire response. This combination is what chaining involves, and it is accomplished by reinforcing entire sequences of the task and eventually reinforcing only the complete task after each of the steps have been learned. The third important concept is generalization, which means that the conditioned response occurs in circumstances different from those during learning.19 Thus, while a trainee might have learned a task through shaping and chaining, he or she might not be able to perform the task in a different situation or outside of the classroom. To achieve generalization, the trainer must provide trainees with opportunities to perform the task in a variety of situations. For example, the trainer can change a role-play script from negotiating with one's supervisor on the deadline of a project to negotiating the starting salary with a new employer. As a result, the trainee learns to generalize the skill from a simple, controlled environment to a different, more difficult one. This is a goal of trainingthat learning acquired during training will be generalized to, and used in, different situations and contexts. Shaping The reinforcement of each step in a process until it is mastered Chaining The reinforcement of entire sequences of a task Generalization The conditioned response occurs in circumstances different from those during learning IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING When applied to training, conditioning theory suggests that trainees should be encouraged and reinforced throughout the training process. In other words, they should be reinforced for attending training, learning the training material, and applying it on the job. Based on conditioning theory, training should be more effective to the extent that trainees are reinforced for learning and the successful performance of training tasks. Social Cognitive Theory According to social cognitive theory, people learn by observing the behaviour of others, making choices about different courses of action to pursue, and by managing their own behaviour in the process of learning.20 Thus, learning does not just occur as a result of reward and punishment contingencies. Learning NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation 73 also occurs through cognitive processes such as imitation and modelling. We observe the actions of others and make note of the reinforcing or punishing outcomes of their behaviour. We then imitate observed behaviour and expect certain consequences to follow. Considerable research has shown that people observe and reproduce the actions and attitudes of others.21 Social cognitive theory involves three key components: observation, self-efficacy, and self-regulation. Observation Observation Learning by observing the actions of others and their consequences As already indicated, people learn by observation. They observe the actions of others and the consequences of those actions. If the person being observed (the role model) is credible and knowledgeable, their behaviour is more likely to be imitated. The imitation will occur particularly if the role model is reinforced for the behaviour. New recruits watch the intense work hours of the senior staff. They then work the same long hours, in the expectation that they, too, will be rewarded with promotions. Four key elements are critical for observational learning to take place: attention, retention, reproduction, and reinforcement. Learners must first attend to the behaviour (i.e., be aware of the skills that are observable). Second, they must remember what they observed and encode it in their own repertoire so that they can recall the skills. Third, they must then try out the skill (i.e., try to reproduce it) through practice and rehearsal. Fourth, if the reproduction results in positive outcomes (i.e., it is reinforced), then the learner is likely to continue to reproduce the behaviour and retain the new skills. Many training programs use social cognitive theory concepts to model desired behaviour that is then followed by opportunities for practice and reinforcement. Some organizations assign new recruits to mentors or senior co-workers so that they can learn by observing them. The financial services firm Edward Jones has a mentoring program in which new investment representatives are paired with more established ones. New employees shadow their mentor for three weeks to learn about the company and how things are done.22 Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy Judgments that people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task 74 While observation may provide the observer with information necessary to imitate the modelled behaviour, we know that people do not always attempt to do things they observe other people doing. For example, a novice skier might watch his friends skillfully make their way down a steep hill but refuse to follow suit. This is because he or she might not have the confidence or the belief that he or she will be able to do it. Such beliefs are known as self-efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy refers to judgments that people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task. Self-efficacy is a cognitive belief that is task-specific, as in the example of the skier's confidence that he or she can ski down a steep hill. The novice skier might have low self-efficacy to ski down the hill but very high self-efficacy that he or she can get an \"A\" in a training course! Managing Performance Through Training and Development NEL Self-efficacy is influenced by four sources of information. In order of importance they are: task performance outcomes, observation, verbal persuasion and social influence, and one's physiological or emotional state.23 The self-efficacy of the skier can be strengthened not only by observing his/her friends' behaviour, but also by their encouragement that he/she can make it down the hill, his/her feelings of comfort and relaxation rather than fear and anxiety, and, most importantly, his/her own successful attempts at skiing down the hill. Self-efficacy has been shown to have a strong effect on people's attitudes, emotions, and behaviour in many areas of human behaviour. Self-efficacy influences the activities people choose to perform, the amount of effort and persistence they devote to a task, affective and stress reactions, and performance outcomes.24 Self-efficacy is also a key factor in training. Research has shown that the effectiveness of many training programs is partly due to the strengthening of trainees' self-efficacy to perform the training task. In other words, training increases trainees' self-efficacy to perform a task, and self-efficacy is related to improved task performance.25 Self-Regulation The third component of social cognitive theory is self-regulation. Self-regulation involves managing one's own behaviour through a series of internal processes. Conditioning theory takes the position that an individual's behaviour is regulated by external factors such as rewards and punishments. However, self-regulation suggests that people can control and manage their own behaviour through a series of internal processes that enables them to structure and motivate their behaviour. These internal processes involve observing or monitoring one's own behaviour as well as the behaviour of others, setting performance goals, practising new and desired behaviours, keeping track of one's progress, and rewarding oneself for goal achievement.26 Self-regulation has been found to be related to cognitive, affective, and behavioural outcomes and to be an important method of training. For example, one study found that self-regulation training increased the job attendance of employees with above-average absenteeism. The results indicated that, compared to a group that did not receive the training, employees who received self-regulation training had higher self-efficacy for attending work and increased job attendance. In a follow-up study, these benefits were shown to continue up to nine months after training.27 Several other studies have also found that self-regulation training leads to improvements in skill acquisition, maintenance, and performance.28 Self-regulation Managing one's own behaviour through a series of internal processes IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING Social cognitive theory has important implications for the design of training programs. In particular, learning can be improved by providing trainees with models who demonstrate how to perform a training task; by strengthening trainee self-efficacy for successfully learning and performing the task; and by teaching trainees how to regulate their behaviour and performance while learning and on the job. NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation 75 3.1 Andragogy An adult-oriented approach to learning that takes into account the differences between adult and child learners Pedagogy The traditional approach to learning used to educate children and youth Adult Learning Theory Consider the learning environment most people have experienced throughout their lives. As children, we are told what, when, and how to learn. Learning is supposed to pay off in some unknown way in the distant future. The question is whether this is an appropriate way to educate and train adults given that adults differ from children in a number of important ways. First, unlike children, adults have acquired a great deal of knowledge and work-related experience that they bring with them to a training program. Adults also like to know why they are learning something, the practical implications of what they are learning, and its relevance to their problems and needs. Adults are also problem-centred in their approach to learning and prefer to be self-directed. They like to learn independently and they are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Other contrasts between the learning needs of children and adults are highlighted in Table 3.4. These differences have led to the development of an adult learning theory known as andragogy. Andragogy is a term coined by adult learning theorist Malcolm Knowles and refers to an adult-oriented approach to learning that takes into account the differences between adult and child learners. Andragogy involves making the learning experience of adults self-directed and problem-centred, and takes into account the learner's existing knowledge and experience. By contrast, the term pedagogy refers to the more traditional approach of learning used to educate children and youth.29 IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING Adult learning theory has important implications for training at every stage of the training process. The design and instruction of training programs should be the joint responsibility of the trainer and trainees. That is, adult learners should have some input about the training they will receive as well as how it is designed. You might recall from the T a bl e 3.4 Teaching Children versus Adults Factor Children Adults Personality Dependent Independent Motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic Roles Student Employee Child Parent, volunteer, spouse, citizen Openness to change Keen Ingrained habits and attitudes Barriers to change Few Negative self-concept Limited opportunities Time Inappropriate teaching methods 76 Experience Limited Vast Orientation to learning Subject-centred Problem-centred Managing Performance Through Training and Development NEL T he Trai n er ' s N o t eb ook 3. 1 Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training Adults need to know why they are learning. Adults should have some input into the planning and instruction of training programs. Adults should be involved in the needs analysis and have input into things such as training content and methods. The designers of training programs should consider the needs and interests of trainees. The training content should be meaningful and relevant to trainees' work-related needs and problems. Trainers should be aware of trainees' experiences and use them as examples. Adults can learn independently, and may prefer to do so. Adults are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Adults should be given safe practice opportunities. chapter-opening vignette that senior staff at the Ontario division of the Canadian Cancer Society consulted with key groups including the executive team, regional employees, and recent hires to customize the new on-boarding program so that it resonates with new hires. The Trainer's Notebook 3.1, \"Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training,\" describes the implications of adult learning theory for training. Theories of Motivation Learning and the effectiveness of a training program are also a function of people's motivation. Motivation is an important predictor of performance and, as you will learn shortly, it is also a key factor for learning. First, it is important to understand what motivation is, the major theories of motivation, and the implications of motivational theories for training and development. Motivation refers to the degree of persistent effort that one directs toward a goal. Motivation has to do with effort, or how hard one works; persistence, or the extent to which one keeps at a task; and direction, or the extent to which one applies effort and persistence toward a meaningful goal. In organizations, this usually means that one directs one's effort and persistence toward organization goals or in a manner that benefits the organization, such as high productivity or excellent customer service. There are two forms of motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is associated with factors in the external environment such as pay, fringe benefits, and company policies. These are motivators that are applied by somebody in the work environment such as a supervisor. Intrinsic motivation is the result of a direct relationship between a worker and the task. Unlike extrinsic motivation, it is self-applied and includes feelings of achievement, accomplishment, challenge, and competence that are the result of performing a task or one's job. NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation Motivation The degree of persistent effort that one directs toward a goal Extrinsic motivation Motivation that stems from factors in the external environment such as pay, fringe benefits, and company policies Intrinsic motivation Motivation that stems from a direct relationship between a worker and the task 77 Theories of motivation can be described as need theories or process theories. Need theories have to do with the things that motivate people and the conditions in which they will be motivated to satisfy them. Process theories of motivation address the process of motivation and how motivation occurs. In the remainder of this section, we will describe need theories of motivation as well as two process theories of motivation (expectancy theory and goalsetting theory). Need Theories Need theories of motivation are concerned with the needs people have and the conditions in which they will be motivated to satisfy them. Needs refer to physiological and psychological desires. In organizations, individuals can satisfy their needs by obtaining incentives such as money to satisfy physiological needs, or by challenging work that allows them to fulfill higher-level psychological needs. Therefore, needs are motivational to the extent that people are motivated to obtain things that will satisfy their needs. Maslow's Need Hierarchy The best-known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslow's need hierarchy. According to Maslow, humans have five sets of needs that are arranged in a hierarchy, with the most basic needs at the bottom of the hierarchy and higher-order needs at the upper levels of the hierarchy. The five needs from lowest to highest are physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and selfactualization needs.30 Physiological needs are needs that people must satisfy to survive and include things such as food, water, and shelter. Physiological needs can usually be satisfied with pay. Safety needs refer to needs for security, stability, and freedom from anxiety. Safe working conditions and job security can satisfy safety needs. Belongingness needs have to do with the need for social interaction, companionship, and friendship. The opportunity to interact with others at work and friendly and supportive co-workers and supervision can satisfy belongingness needs. Esteem needs have to do with feelings of competence and appreciation and recognition by others. The opportunity to learn new things and challenging work can satisfy esteem needs. The highest need in Maslow's hierarchy is self-actualization. Selfactualization involves developing one's true potential as an individual and experiencing personal fulfillment. This can be fulfilled by work experiences that involve opportunities for creativity, growth, and self-development. According to Maslow, people are motivated to satisfy their lowest-level unsatisfied need. If one's physiological need is unsatisfied, then one will be motivated to satisfy it. The basic premise is that the lowest-level unsatisfied need has the greatest motivating potential, which means that motivation depends on one's position in the need hierarchy. Once a need has been satisfied it will no longer be motivational, and the next highest need in the hierarchy will become motivational. The one exception to this is the selfactualization need, which becomes stronger.31 78 Managing Performance Through Training and Development NEL Alderfer's ERG Theory Another need theory of motivation was developed by Clayton Alderfer. Alderfer's ERG theory consists of three needs. Existence needs are similar to Maslow's physiological and safety needs. Relatedness needs are similar to Maslow's belongingness need. And growth needs are similar to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization needs.32 Alderfer's ERG theory differs from Maslow's need theory in a number of ways. To begin with, ERG theory is not a rigid hierarchy of needs in which one must move up the hierarchy in a lock-step fashion. Although both theories argue that once a lower-level need is satisfied the desire for higher-level needs will increase, ERG theory does not state that a lower-level need must be gratified before a higher-level need becomes motivational. Thus, one can be motivated to fulfill relatedness or growth needs even if they have not fulfilled their existence needs. Maslow, however, would argue that a lower need must first be satisfied before a higher-level need will become motivational. Another difference is that ERG theory states that if individuals are unable to satisfy a higher-level need, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need will increase. Maslow of course would say that this is not possible because once a need has been satisfied it is no longer motivational. IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING Need theories have important implications for training and development. They highlight the fact that employees' needs must be considered in the design of a training program. For example, if trainees' needs are not being fulfilled on the job then their behaviour and performance are not likely to change as a result of a training program unless the training program leads to need fulfillment. Improving employees' knowledge and skill through training and development will be most effective when employees are motivated on the job. Another implication of need theories has to do with employees' motivation to attend a training program, to learn the training material, and to apply it on the job. Employees are not likely to be motivated to attend training or to learn and apply the training material if doing so does not fulfill their needs. Therefore, trainers and managers should be aware of trainees' needs and ensure that training programs are designed in part to fulfill them. Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory is a process theory of motivation. According to expectancy theory, the energy or force that a person directs toward an activity is a direct result of a number of factors. These factors are known as expectancy, instrumentality, and valence:33 1. Expectancy refers to an individual's subjective probability that they can achieve a particular level of performance on a task. For example, what is the probability that you can get an \"A\" in this course? What is the probability that you can get a \"C\" in this course? These outcomes are referred to as first-level outcomes since they are a direct result of one's effort or motivational force. NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation 79 2. Instrumentality refers to the subjective likelihood that attainment of a first-level outcome such as an \"A\" or \"C\" in this course will lead to attractive consequences that are known as second-level outcomes. The consequences can be either intrinsic or extrinsic outcomes. For example, what is the probability that an \"A\" in this course will result in a job offer or a sense of accomplishment? What is the probability that a \"C\" will result in a job offer or a sense of accomplishment? 3. Valence refers to the attractiveness of the first- and second-level outcomes. The attractiveness of a second-level outcome such as a job offer or a sense of accomplishment is simply one's subjective ratings. For example, on a scale of 1 to 10 with 10 being the most attractive, how attractive would you rate receiving a job offer? The valence or attractiveness of a first-level outcome (an \"A\" or \"C\" grade in this course) is a result of the instrumentalities multiplied by the valence of each second-level outcome (I V). For example, the attractiveness of receiving an \"A\" in this course would be a function of: (I V of receiving a job offer) (I V of experiencing a sense of accomplishment) This calculation will determine the valence or attractiveness of the first-level outcome (receiving an \"A\" in this course). The same calculation would also be done to determine the valence of receiving a grade of \"C\" in the course. To determine one's motivation or effort, the expectancy or probability of receiving an \"A\" or \"C\" grade must be multiplied by the valence of the first-level outcomes. This would result in a force or motivational value for pursuing an \"A\" and a \"C\" grade. In other words, it will indicate what grade you are most motivated to attain. If you feel that you can put in the effort and time required to obtain an \"A\" (i.e., your expectancy), and you believe that obtaining an \"A\" will result in a high probability of getting a job offer and experiencing a sense of accomplishment (instrumentality), then chances are you will be motivated to get an \"A\" in the course. The expectancy theory linkages can be written as the following equation: Effort Expectancy (Instrumentality Valence) In effect, what all this means is that people's effort or motivation is a function of their beliefs that they can achieve a particular level of performance (first-level outcome), and that this will lead to consequences that are attractive to them (the valence of the first-level outcome). The attractiveness of a first-level outcome is simply the probability that it will lead to attractive consequences (e.g., the probability that getting an \"A\" in the course will result in a job offer and a sense of fulfillment). Thus, you are likely to be motivated to obtain an \"A\" in this course if you believe that there is a high probability that you can get an \"A\" and if you believe that getting an \"A\" will lead to consequences that are attractive to you. IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING There are a number of implications of expectancy theory for training and development. First, trainees must believe that there is a high probability they will be able to learn the training material and fulfill the 80 Managing Performance Through Training and Development NEL training objective(s) (high expectancy). Second, learning the training material and using it on the job must result in consequences (high instrumentality) that are attractive to trainees (high valence of second-level outcomes). Simply put, you are more likely to learn something and apply it on the job if you believe that you can in fact learn it and that you will be rewarded with something that is attractive to you once it has been learned and used on the job. The major implication of expectancy theory for training revolves around trainees' motivation to attend a training program, to learn, and to apply what is learned on the job. Along these lines, trainees must believe that there is a high probability they will be able to learn and apply the training material, and that doing so will result in attractive consequences for them. Goal-Setting Theory Goal-setting theory is based on the idea that people's intentions are a good predictor of their behaviour. According to the theory, goals are motivational because they direct people's efforts and energies and lead to the development of strategies to help them reach their goals. For goals to be motivational, however, they must have a number of characteristics. First, goals must be specific in terms of their level and time frame. General goals that lack specificity tend not to be motivational. Second, goals must be challenging to be motivational. Goals should not be so easy that they require little effort to achieve, and they should not be so difficult that they are impossible to reach. Third, goals must be accompanied by feedback so that it is possible to know how well one is doing and how close one is to goal accomplishment. Finally, for goals to be motivational, people must accept them and be committed to them.34 Research on goal-setting theory has provided strong support for the motivational effects of goals. Studies across a wide variety of settings have consistently shown that challenging and specific goals that are accompanied with performance feedback result in higher levels of individual and group performance.35 However, in some instances high performance goals are not always the most effective. For example, recall from the discussion on the stages of learning that goal setting can be harmful for learning during the declarative stage when trainees' attention and cognitive resources are required to learn the task. Setting high performance goals can interfere with learning because they force trainees to focus on the outcomes of their effort rather than learning. This is especially a concern for learning complex tasks where trainees lack the knowledge and skill to perform the task and require all of their cognitive resources for learning. Setting a high performance goal will be more effective for tasks that are less complex and straightforward. Another factor that needs to be considered is whether the goal is a distal or proximal goal. A distal goal is a long-term or end-goal, such as achieving a certain level of sales performance. A proximal goal is a short-term goal or sub-goal that is instrumental for achieving a distal goal. Proximal goals involve breaking down a distal goal into smaller more attainable sub-goals. Proximal goals provide clear markers of progress toward a distal goal because NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation Distal goal A long-term or end goal Proximal goal A short-term goal or sub-goals 81 they result in more frequent feedback. As a result, individuals can evaluate their ongoing performance and identify appropriate strategies for the attainment of a distal goal. Distal goals are too far removed to provide markers of one's progress, making it difficult for individuals to know how they are doing and adjust their strategies.36 Proximal goals are especially important for complex tasks. Research has found that distal goals can have a negative effect on the performance of a complex task. However, when distal goals are accompanied with proximal goals they have a significant positive effect on the discovery and use of taskrelevant strategies, self-efficacy, and performance.37 A study of provincial and federal government managers who attended a self-awareness training program found that trainees who set distal and proximal outcome goals at the end of the training program were more likely to apply what they learned in training on the job six weeks after training than those who only set a distal outcome goal. Thus, distal goals are effective for learning a new task only when they are accompanied by proximal goals.38 IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING Goal-setting theory has a number of implications for training. For example, prior to a training program trainees should have specific and challenging goals for learning, and they should be provided with feedback during and after the training program so that they know if they have accomplished their goals. Setting specific and challenging goals should improve trainees' motivation to learn as well as their performance on the training task. However, setting high performance goals during the declarative stage of learning can be detrimental for learning, especially for complex tasks. Therefore, special attention needs to be given to the stage at which goals are set and the complexity of the task. In addition, attention must also be given to the type of goal. For tasks that are novel and complex, a distal goal should be accompanied with proximal goals. Proximal goals should be set for knowledge and skill acquisition during training. It is also important to distinguish between a mastery goal and a performance goal, a topic we now turn to. Goal Orientation Outcome-oriented goals that focus attention on the achievement of specific performance outcomes An important characteristic of goals is goal orientation. There are two general types of goal orientationsa mastery or learning goal and a performance goal orientation. Mastery goals are process-oriented and focus on the learning process. They enhance understanding of the task and the use of task strategies. Performance goals are outcome-oriented goals that focus attention on the achievement of specific performance outcomes. Goal orientation is important because it can influence task performance as well as cognitive, affective, and motivational processes. The type of goal set (i.e., mastery versus performance) also affects skill acquisition and learning. Trainees who have mastery goals have been found to have higher intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and metacognitive activity, and these factors are all related to learning and performance.39 82 Managing Performance Through Training and Development Mastery goals Process-oriented goals that focus on the learning process Performance goals NEL Evidence also exists that individuals differ with respect to their goal orientation. Goal orientation has been found to be a stable individual difference such that some individuals have a preference for mastery goals while others have a preference for performance goals. Individuals with a mastery goal orientation are most concerned about developing competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations. Individuals with a performance goal orientation are more concerned about demonstrating their competence by seeking favourable judgments and avoiding negative judgments. Mastery goals are especially important for learning because individuals need to acquire knowledge and learn strategies required to perform a task. When learning is required rather than motivation, setting a difficult performance outcome goal has been found to be detrimental for performance. This is because performance goals can distract attention from learning. Thus, during the learning process a specific, difficult mastery goal should be set as it has been shown to result in higher self-efficacy and performance. Once an individual has acquired the knowledge and skills necessary to perform a new task, he/she can focus on performance goals.40 IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING Research on goal orientation suggests that trainers should consider the goal orientation of trainees and the type of goals that are set for training. Mastery goals that focus on skill development appear to be particularly important for learning, especially for individuals who have a performance goal orientation and need to be assigned learning goals. Thus, trainers should emphasize the importance of learning and the need to focus on mastery goals during training. High mastery goals appear to be especially important for challenging tasks and when new skills must be learned. Setting high performance goals for a task that is still being learned can be detrimental for learning. Therefore, mastery goals should be set for learning and performance goals for motivation once learning has been achieved.41 Training Motivation In the previous section, we described motivation theories and their implications for training and development. In this section, we focus more specifically on the role of motivation in training. In particular, we introduce the concept of training motivation and describe both the predictors and consequences of trainees' motivation to learn. Training motivation (also known as motivation to learn) refers to the direction, intensity, and persistence of learning-directed behaviour in training contexts. Research has found that training motivation predicts learning and training outcomes and is influenced by individual and situational factors.42 Among the individual factors that predict training motivation, personality variables as well as factors associated with one's job and career are important. Personality variables that predict training motivation include locus of control, achievement motivation, anxiety, and conscientiousness. Locus of control refers to people's beliefs about whether their behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces. Persons with an internal locus of control believe that the opportunity to control their own behaviour NEL Chapter 3: Learning and Motivation Training motivation The direction, intensity, and persistence of learning-directed behaviour in training contexts Locus of control People's beliefs about whether their behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces 83 resides within themselves. Persons with an external locus of control believe that external forces determine their behaviour. Thus, internals perceive stronger links between the effort they put into something and the outcome or performance level they achieve. Persons with an internal locus of control tend to have higher levels of training motivation. In addition, persons who are high in achievement motivation or the desire to perform challenging tasks and are high on conscientiousness also tend to have high training motivation. Persons with higher anxiety, however, tend to have lower training motivation. Self-efficacy is also positively related to training motivation. Several job and career variables are also related to training motivation. For example, employees with higher job involvement or the degree to which an individual identifies psychologically with work and the importance of work to their self-image have higher training motivation. Organizational commitment and career planning and exploration are also associated with higher training motivation. Organizational factors such as supervisor support, peer support, and a positive climate predict training motivation. Training motivation is important because it is related to a number of training outcomes. For example, training motivation is positively related to declarative knowledge and skill acquisition as well as trainees' reactions to training and the likelihood that trainees apply on the job what they learn in training. IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING A trainer can do at least two things to ensure that trainees' training motivation is high. First, they can assess trainee motivation prior to a training program and ensure that trainees are motivated to learn. In fact, this is what the U.S. auto finance company AmeriCredit does. Employees complete a motivation questionnaire that is used to predict their likelihood of success in learning from a training program.43 Second, managers can try to influence the factors that predict training motivation. They might lower trainees' anxiety, increase self-efficacy, improve attitudes, and provide support for learning and training. In summary, training motivation is an important factor in the training process. Training is more likely to be effective and result in learning, skill acquisition, and improved job performance when trainees are motivated to learn.44 A Model of Training Effectiveness make the connection 84 In this final section of the chapter, we present a model of training effectiveness that highlights the linkages between training and learning as well as between learning and individual performance and organizational effectiveness. Figure 3.2 presents a model of training effectiveness. Recall from Chapter 1 that training involves the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities to improve performance on one's current job, and development refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform future job responsibilities. Thus, the first important link in the model is a path from training to learning and retention. In other words, training leads to declaraMan