Chapter 07 Leadership and Management Learning Goals Understand leadership as an influence process in organizations Distinguish between leadership and management Distinguish the trait, behavioral, and contingency theories of leadership Learning Goals (Cont.) Discuss some alternative views of leadership Analyze the effects of self-managing teams on leadership Appreciate some international and ethical issues that surround leadership and management Chapter Overview Introduction Management and Leadership Trait Approaches to Leadership Behavioral Theories of Leadership Contingency Theories of Leadership Alternative Views of Leadership Chapter Overview (Cont.) Implicit Leadership Theory: \"We Know a Leader When We See One\" Women, Men, and Leadership Leadership and Self-Managing Teams International Aspects of Leadership and Management Ethical Issues in Leadership and Management Introduction Leadership What is leadership? What comes to your mind when you see this word? Introduction (Cont.) Leadership Social influence process of involving two or more people Leader Follower Potential follower Introduction (Cont.) Leadership (cont.) Two dimensions Leader intends to affect behavior of another person Target of influence effort perceives intent as acceptable Target must attribute behavior to a specific person Consider the behavior acceptable Introduction (Cont.) Find leaders in different places in organizations Formal organization position Personal qualities add or detract from leadership Emergent leaders within formal and informal groups in an organization Leaders at any organization level Management and Leadership Managers sustain and control organizations Leaders try to change them Leaders have vision and inspire others to follow it Managers follow an organization's present vision Management and leadership requirements Differs in different organizational positions Differs at different times in an organization's history Management and Leadership (Cont.) External environment Stable Turbulent Manager Leader The Evolution of Leadership Research (Cont.) Contingency Theories (person x situation) Traits 1900 Behaviors (task and people) Fiedler's contingency theory (enduring personality-like qualities) 1950 1960 Time House's path-goal theory (behavior repertoire) 1970 Trait Approaches to Leadership (Cont.) Leadership traits: distinctive physical or psychological characteristics Of successful leaders or distinguished leaders from followers Physical: height, weight Social: interpersonal skills, status Personality: self-confidence, intelligence Trait Approaches to Leadership (Cont.) Leadership Traits Intelligence Dominance Self-confidence Energy Task-relevant knowledge Drive Desire to lead Honesty/integrity Self-confidence Cognitive ability Knowledge of the business \"Leaders are bright, self-confident, high-energy people who know something about the situation they are trying to affect and take control when they must (p. 221).\" Behavioral Theories of Leadership Two complementary theories University of Michigan Studies Ohio State University Leadership Studies Major dimensions of leader behavior Task-centered behavior People-centered behavior Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The University of Michigan Studies Production-centered leader behavior Task focused Pressured subordinates to perform Little concern for people Did not trust people to work on their own Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The University of Michigan Studies (cont.) Production-centered leader behavior (cont.) Close supervision Little understanding of their work unit's social system Did not set high performance goals Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The University of Michigan Studies (cont.) Employee-centered leader behavior Focused on people and their personal success Understood of their work unit's social system Set high performance goals Communicated performance expectations to subordinates Combined a strong concern for the social aspects of the work unit with high performance expectations Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The University of Michigan Studies (cont.) Research results Employee-centered leadership: higher work unit performance than production-centered leadership Production-centered leadership: high productivity with several latent dysfunctions Poor employee attitudes Higher turnover or absenteeism Little group loyalty High levels of distrust between subordinates and leaders Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The Ohio State Leadership Studies Initiating Structure (task-oriented) High Make individual task assignments Set deadlines Clearly lay out what needs to be done Act decisively Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The Ohio State Leadership Studies Initiating Structure (task-oriented) Low Tend not to take initiative Practice "hands off" management Leave people alone; let them define the tasks and deadlines Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The Ohio State Leadership Studies (cont.) Excessively high Initiating Structure High turnover High grievance rates Low satisfaction Moderate initiating structure Good task performance when People not trained Face high task ambiguity Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The Ohio State Leadership Studies (cont.) Consideration (people-oriented) High Concern for members of their group Empathic and interpersonally warm Interested in developing trust-based relationships with subordinates Seek suggestions and opinions of subordinates Accept and carry out suggestions Behavioral Theories of Leadership (Cont.) The Ohio State Leadership Studies (cont.) Low Publicly criticize subordinate's work Lack concern for other's feelings Little interest in quality of interpersonal interactions Research results High Consideration: high job satisfaction, low turnover, group cohesiveness High on both dimensions: positive work attitudes Contingency Theories of Leadership Successful leadership depends on leader's situation Two contingency theories strongly differ Leader as unable to change behavior readily Leader as able to choose from a behavioral repertoire Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership: person has a behavioral predisposition Task-oriented: structures situations, sets deadlines, makes task assignments Relationship-oriented: focuses on people, considerate, not strongly directive Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) Fiedler's contingency (cont.) Person's predisposition to behave interacts with favorableness of situation Determines leader effectiveness Dimensions of situations Leader-member relations Task structure Position power See text book Figure 12.1 Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) Fiedler's contingency (cont.) Leader-member relations Quality of the relationship between subordinates and leader Amount of trust between leader and subordinates Leader is liked and respected by subordinates Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) Fiedler's contingency theory (cont.) Task structure Extent to which work is well defined and standardized or ambiguous and vague High task structure: work is predictable and can be planned Low task structure: ambiguous situation with changing circumstances and unpredictable events Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) Fiedler's contingency theory (cont.) Position power: formal authority of leader High position power: leader hires people; rewards or punishes behavior Low position power: policies may constrain leader from using rewards or punishments Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) Fiedler's contingency theory (cont.) Classify situations on the three dimensions Favorableness of situation for leader's influence Favorable situations allow high leader influence Unfavorable situations allow little leader influence Task-oriented leaders more effective in highly favorable or highly unfavorable situations Relationship-oriented leaders more effective in situations between those two extremes Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) Fiedler's contingency theory (cont.) Difficult to select leaders to match situations Not optimistic about effectiveness of leadership training Fiedler argued for changing the situation to fit a leader's predispositions--\"'engineer' the job to fit the [leader]\" Or leader learns ways to change situation to fit predisposition Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory of leadership Leaders affect a subordinate's motivation to reach desired goals Rewards when person reaches desired goals Supportive while person tries to reach goals Makes inherently motivating task assignments Clears barriers to goal accomplishment Clearing subordinates' paths so they can reach desired goals Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Leader behaviors: a repertoire Directive (task-centered): what, when, how Supportive (people-centered): concern for people and the needs they try to satisfy Participative: consults with subordinates; seriously considers their ideas Achievement-oriented: emphasizes excellence in performance; sets high performance goals See text book Figure 12.2 Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Contingency factors Personal factors of subordinates Work environment factors Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Subordinates' personal factors Perception of their ability Locus of control Authoritarianism Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Work environment factors Tasks Formal authority Primary work group Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Subordinates's ability Low: likely respond positively to directive leader behavior High: directive leader behavior is redundant; they already know what to do Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Locus of control Internal control (self in control) Responds positively to participative behavior Less positively to directive behavior External control Responds positively to low participative behavior Responds positively to directive leader behavior Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Authoritarianism Low: tend not to defer to authority; prefer participative behavior High: accept directive leader behavior Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Work environment factors: affect degree of ambiguity Routine tasks Clearly defined role relationships Standard operating procedures Less ambiguity than tasks done in a more fluid setting Formal authority Lets leader clearly define work roles Helps set clear goals Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Primary work group People strongly identified with each other Develop well-defined work procedures Creates unambiguous environment People not strongly identified with each other Do not develop well-defined work procedures Creates ambiguous environment Contingency Theories of Leadership (Cont.) House's path-goal theory (cont.) Low ambiguity Directive leader behavior redundant Use supportive behavior High ambiguity Directive leader behavior Clarifies work requirements Reduces uncertainty Alternative Views of Leadership The Leadership Mystique Transformational Leadership Charismatic Leadership Theories Alternative Views of Leadership (Cont) The Leadership Mystique Sense of mission: a vision of a future state for the organization. It does not now exist but it will exist Capacity for power: ability to get and use power to pursue the mission Will to survive and persevere In Jenning's words: \". . . a will to persevere against a discourteous, unbelieving world of sometimes total opposition.\" Alternative Views of Leadership (Cont) Transformational Leadership Three elements Charisma: from the Greek, charisma, meaning a gift. A talent to inspire devotion and allegiance Individualized consideration Intellectual stimulation Alternative Views of Leadership (Cont) Transformational Leadership (cont.) Individualized consideration Recognizes subordinates' individual differences Emphasizes continual growth and development Knows her or his subordinates well Intellectual stimulation Builds high awareness of problems and solutions Stimulates people to image new future states Induces changes in beliefs and values of followers Alternative Views of Leadership (Cont) Transformational Leadership (cont.) Strive for big increases in performance Bring excitement to workplace Build strong emotional bonds between self and subordinates Often bring dramatic changes to an organization's culture High organizational performance Alternative Views of Leadership (Cont) Charismatic Leadership Theories Attract devoted followers They energetically pursue leader's vision Move followers to extraordinary heights of performance Profoundly affect aspirations Build emotional attachment to leader Alternative Views of Leadership (Cont) Charismatic Leadership Theories (cont.) Win commitment to leader's vision Develop and widely communicate an inspirational vision Form bonds of trust between themselves and their followers Impatient with the present Press for continuous improvement Implicit Leadership Theory: \"We Know a Leader When We See One\" Leadership categorization People observe behavior Quickly compare it to their cognitive category of a leader Leadership prototype: a person's cognitive image of leader traits and characteristics Leadership exemplar: a specific person regarded as a leader Perspective Offered by Each Theory Qualities needed Behavior needed Traits Behavioral Leadership requirements of an organization Contingency Alternative views Vision, charisma, knowledge Assess person and situation Women, Men, and Leadership Do women and men exhibit different leadership behavior? Women: nurturing and caring Men: competitive and aggressive Results of their socialization? Women, Men, and Leadership (Cont.) Limited empirical evidence of differences between men and women Women described themselves Sharing power Encouraging subordinates self-worth Sharing information Men described themselves Using position authority Relying on rewards and punishments Women, Men, and Leadership (Cont.) Limited empirical evidence (cont.) People who worked for men high on consideration and initiating structure had the most positive attitudes in one study Women behaved more democratically than men Leadership and Self-Managing Teams The increasing use of self-managing teams will change traditional patterns of decision authority in organizations Such teams take on much decision authority formerly held by managers and supervisors Changes the roles of managers and supervisors outside the team Defines new roles for team members Leadership and Self-Managing Teams (Cont.) Managers and supervisors outside the team have redefined roles Long-range planning Team guidance and development Resource support Political support Behavior focused on developing the self-managing part of selfmanaging teams International Aspects of Leadership and Management Core values of a country's culture can defined the type of leadership behavior that is acceptable Value hierarchical relationships--directive approaches accepted: Hong Kong, Latin American countries Do not value hierarchical relationships--supportive (or participative) approaches accepted: Austria, Sweden International Aspects of Leadership and Management (Cont.) Some multinational organizations will try for uniformity in leadership behavior Selection of people with behaviors and orientations desired by the company Socialization of people to organization's core values International Aspects of Leadership and Management (Cont.) Cultural differences in response to directive leadership and management Initiating structure, production-centered, task-oriented, directive behaviors Workers in countries with authoritarian values expect autocratic behavior Other research: few cross-cultural effects Positive effects of supportive leadership Tie positive rewards to performance and get positive results International Aspects of Leadership and Management (Cont.) Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Program (GLOBE) Major new research program One hundred sixty co-investigators from 60 countries Results from this unprecedented international behavior research effort not yet available Ethical Issues in Leadership and Management Leadership uses social influence to deliberately affect another person's behavior Such changes in a person's behavior can happen without a person consciously deciding to change Ethical issue: Are such efforts are an unethical manipulation of other people's behavior? Ethical Issues in Leadership and Management (Cont.) Behavior changes may also change a attitudes, values, and beliefs Example: move toward Quality Management and transform an organization's values Individual employees may undergo similar changes Some observers suggest that leadership may have a brainwashing-like effect on people Ethical Issues in Leadership and Management (Cont.) Qualities of ethical and unethical leaders Ethical leader Confronts moral dilemmas Rewards ethical behavior Builds an ethical organizational culture Transformational leaders Can get strong commitment to their vision from followers Can clearly have ethical or unethical results ABSTRACT Communication plays a major role in every organization. Through organizational communication, an organizational goals, objectives, mission and vision statements are clearly communicated to the stakeholders. In this paper, we are going to look at the dimensions of organizational communication Introduction Organizational communication is the subfield of larger discipline of the communication studies. As a field, it is considered as the analysis, criticism of the role of communication in the organizational context. Its main function is to persuade, promote goodwill and inform. There are various types of organizational messages that are divided according to the direction, expression and the organization structure. The organizational structure entails the formal and informal communication. On the other hand, according to direction, messages are further divided into the downward, upward and horizontal communication. According to the expression, communication in an organization is further divided into oral and written. However, there are also additional messages that include the organizing, relationship and change messages. The relationship messages entails the communication that aids in helping the individuals to define their roles and even access the compatibility of the individual including organizational goals. Change messages on the other hand, help the organizations to adapt what and how they do things; it is viewed as the essential to the open system. Finally, the organizing messages establish the rules and regulations of an environment. Communication networks are the patterns that link the organizations members together. It includes the formal and informal communication networks. Communication channels Communication channels are the means of transmission of the messages. The most common means used in many organizations includes face-to-face interaction, memos, letters, grouped meetings, websites, presentations, teleconferencing and computer mediated exchanges. Communication load is the number of the messages moving through communication. It is commonly referred to as the load, under-load and the overload. The movement of the messages in the organizations based on the authority or position of the message sender and the receiver, It typically describes the upward, downward and the horizontal communication. Message Distortion is anything contributing to the alterations in meaning as the messages move through an organization. Importance of communication to organizations Thorough communication in an organization leads to accurate and informed decision making. Correct communication is achieved when everyone in the decision-making process feels appreciated and respected. It helps the organization to achieve a more comprehensive input from the stakeholders. On the other hand, an authoritative organization is characterized with the topdown communication. The form of communication reflects the knowledge including the priorities of the upper leaders of the organization. ABSTRACT Communication plays a major role in every organization. Through organizational communication, an organizational goals, objectives, mission and vision statements are clearly communicated to the stakeholders. In this paper, we are going to look at the dimensions of organizational communication Introduction Organizational communication is the subfield of larger discipline of the communication studies. As a field, it is considered as the analysis, criticism of the role of communication in the organizational context. Its main function is to persuade, promote goodwill and inform. There are various types of organizational messages that are divided according to the direction, expression and the organization structure. The organizational structure entails the formal and informal communication. On the other hand, according to direction, messages are further divided into the downward, upward and horizontal communication. According to the expression, communication in an organization is further divided into oral and written. However, there are also additional messages that include the organizing, relationship and change messages. The relationship messages entails the communication that aids in helping the individuals to define their roles and even access the compatibility of the individual including organizational goals. Change messages on the other hand, help the organizations to adapt what and how they do things; it is viewed as the essential to the open system. Finally, the organizing messages establish the rules and regulations of an environment. Communication networks are the patterns that link the organizations members together. It includes the formal and informal communication networks. Communication channels Communication channels are the means of transmission of the messages. The most common means used in many organizations includes face-to-face interaction, memos, letters, grouped meetings, websites, presentations, teleconferencing and computer mediated exchanges. Communication load is the number of the messages moving through communication. It is commonly referred to as the load, under-load and the overload. The movement of the messages in the organizations based on the authority or position of the message sender and the receiver, It typically describes the upward, downward and the horizontal communication. Message Distortion is anything contributing to the alterations in meaning as the messages move through an organization. Importance of communication to organizations Thorough communication in an organization leads to accurate and informed decision making. Correct communication is achieved when everyone in the decision-making process feels appreciated and respected. It helps the organization to achieve a more comprehensive input from the stakeholders. On the other hand, an authoritative organization is characterized with the topdown communication. The form of communication reflects the knowledge including the priorities of the upper leaders of the organization