critical analysis of

Coaching and Experiential Training with Using Different Leadership Styles

In order for the best possible sense-making and decision-making to occur, a surge leader must be able to evaluate the situation, lean into discom- fort, maintain a high level of resilience, listen closely as an ally (Katz & Miller, 2013; Miller & Katz, 2013) to the af- fected and to advisors, communicate ac- curately, transparently, and authentically the status and intent, and observe, evalu-

ate, assess, and analyze from all possible perspectives and lenses to have a broader understanding of the situation. This is part of critical adaptation to the contin- ual, non-linear, rapidly evolving situa- tions of events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, and this requires understand- ing of, fluency with, and ability to adapt and integrate multiple styles of leader- ship for best use of the their traits and skills, in order to lead effectively at and beyond the edge of chaos (Hunt et al., 2007; Stringham, 2012). Using multiple leadership styles, integrating and agilely adjusting them to evolving situations, the surge leader has the ability to react more effectively to shocking, disruptive, sur- prising, and destabilizing conditions that shock systems, whether these systems exist in departments, non-profit organi- zations, corporations, public schools,

school districts, universities, government agencies, communities, or states and provinces. This kind of knowledge, ca- pability, and capacity comes with prac- tice and development, and the continual practice of real-time, scenario-based training provides the opportunity for leaders to employ different leadership styles, as necessary in different training scenarios, giving them the opportunity to test, adapt, and flex leadership styles and attributes, preparing them for agility in live crises.

Through Shock Leadership De- velopment, leaders are able to learn and train on the employment of attributes such as self-regulation, self-awareness, honesty, trust, altruism, accountability, integrity, and clarity, which are impor- tant characteristics of authentic and transparent leadership styles (Avolio et al., 2004; Boin et al., 2013; Gardner et al., 2005; George, 2003; Yukl, 2013), giving a high degree of emphasis on fol- lower welfare, which is vital in crises. Without authenticity and transparency, leaders behaviors and decisions are eventually impacted, creating a decline in trust, engagement, and loyalty, and potentially driving or exacerbating toxic cultures (Baum, 2005; Houser et al., 2014; Salvatico, 2006).

Additionally, mindfulness train- ing and real-time training, scenarios, and drills help prepare for the adaptability and agility espoused in adaptive and situational leadership styles, (Hayashi & Soo, 2012; Northouse, 2016; Yukl, 2013), potentially preparing leaders for the advanced or magnified degree of leadership style flexibility and influence

arguably required to still be able to mo- bilize others and accomplish the mission (Heifetz, et al., 2009; Northouse, 2016) under the highly chaotic and austere conditions of crises, such as pandemics.

Furthermore, scenarios and con- tinual real-time, high-impact disaster training affords the opportunity to test and understand leader communication. Leadership is largely based on the ability to communicate, and this ability is influ- enced largely by the context in which a leader finds oneself (Hamrefors, 2010). Communication, like many other aspects of behavior, are contextually situational, and can be effective in one location, time, or space, and completely ineffective in others, which is why it is important to place leaders in different situations and conditions, through simulation, in order to build the ability and experience of communicating even in the most adverse conditions, such as combat, a fire, a flood, an earthquake, a terrorist attack, and even a mass pandemic. A commu- nicative leader ...engages employees in dialogue, actively shares and seeks feedback, practices participative decision making, and is perceived as open and involved (Johansson et al., 2014). Communication behaviors, such as at- tentive listening, two-way communica- tion, and upward influence through co- worker involvement are critical in order to achieve organizational objectives (Jo- hansson et al., 2014; Tyssen et al., 2014), including during crisis response and management (Reynolds et al., 2008).

Such communications from authoritative voices, carefully crafted for accuracy,

honesty, transparency, and evidence of collaboration, provided consistently, can

calm the public, prevent panic and anger, and foster trust in turbulent times (Par An inability to lead from this communicative approach can cause problems with the audience, create preconceptions of the topics being com- municated or the communicator, cause distrust, and exacerbate system disrup- tion (Nijkrake et al., 2015; Parsons et al., 2017).

Shock Leadership Development implementation can provide opportunity for testing and learning effective crisis communication, because in actual crises, it is a vital element to effective group dynamics, interactions, and for motivat- ing and transforming people (Lvina, 2014; Men, 2014a; Men, 2014b).

In times like these, effective leaders need to transform people through an exceptional form of influence. A leader must be able to tap into the mo- tives of followers and motivate them to accomplish goals and surpass expecta- tions (Celik, 2016; Northouse, 2016; Shadroconis, 2013). In times of discon- tinuous disruption, employees and com- munity members are often in disarray, unsure, and stressed about the current situation and the future, for their work, their families, and their communities, among other worries. Thus, leaders that have strong values and are attentive to the needs of the followers, and who are concerned about their performance and well-being, can use charismatic and in- spirational motivation to calm fears, in- fluence focused attention, and provide intellectual stimulation. This capability can be critical in crisis situations for continuity of operations, and these are attributes that are seen in the transforma- tional leadership style (Northouse, 2016;

Tyssen, Wald, & Heidenreich, 2014; Zhang et al., 2012). The ability to effec- tively interact with, influence, encourage, and intellectually stimulate the people in groups, teams, and organizations is a vi- tal element to the effective function of organizational systems, and this is im- portant learning that can, at least par- tially, be provided, understood, and prac- ticed through real-time training. As of- ten seen in armed forces contexts, when leaders are trained, educated, and devel- oped through such real-time, high- impact, comprehensive development frameworks, team members that partici- pate in these drills and scenarios also become aware, learned, and participative in the development of their leaders andof their own leadership skills, further fostering crisis leadership capability and preparedness in the complex system.

Complexity science exemplifies that leadership is a product of the dy- namics of the interactions of all the peo- ple and elements in a system (Lichten- stein & Ploman, 2009) and no study, analysis, or response to one component of a complex adaptive system will pro- vide an understanding of or effective change in the entire system (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007). This is why systems thinking is critical to group, organizational, na- tional, and global function. Many have witnessed or experienced the effects of the current pandemic not just on health, but on the healthcare system, the public health infrastructure, education, em- ployment, social discourse, elections, and economies, among other areas af- fected. In a system, leadership is a product of the dynamics of the interac- tions of all components in the system,

sons et al., 2017).

and context emerges from those interac- tions (Lichtenstein & Ploman, 2009). Effective change emerges from the inter- related factors of the entire system in civil society (Lichtenstein & Plowman, 2009; Onyx & Leonard, 2011). Engag- ing this systems-knowledge and experi- ence through learning, training, and en- countering systems leadership is sup- plementary to existing systems ap- proaches within U.S. armed forces high reliability organizations (Rochlin et al., 1987), and thus provide the ability for leaders that engage in systems leadership to operate from that systems-thinking lens, enhancing the capability of whole- system assessments in sense-making and decision-making during crises (Nor- thouse, 2015; Uhl-Bien et al., 2007; Yukl, 2013).

By using a combination of long- term design, development, implementa- tion of similar scenario-based, real-time simulation training programs, mindful- ness development, and the incorporation of different leadership style use in these training scenarios, organizations can prepare and enable organizational lead- ers to increase flexibility, adaptability, and surge capacity to deal with rapidly shifting, non-linear, discontinuous change in catastrophic situations, re- sponding more effectively in shocks to the systems of their organizations.

Surge Leadership capability and experience can provide higher levels of individual situational awareness, im- prove collaboration, unit cohesion, and teamwork, reduce response and deci- sion-making time, expand surge capacity, generate enhanced inter-organizational.

interoperability, and propel leader elas- ticity and tractability, all of which are critical in dealing with extreme, highly complex environments with shifting un- knowns and VUCA exacerbation. We posit that this kind of leadership is the comprehensive, although complex, lead- ership development model for emergen- cies and disasters that jolt the entire sys- tememergencies such as the COVID- 19 outbreak. However, this is not a leadership style that any leader can sim- ply embrace. It requires an even more comprehensive level of leadership de- velopment that can be attained through the Shock Leadership Development framework.