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Body and movement in early childhood; spaces for movement-based play

Published: February 28, 2021

Introduction

Childhood is period characterized by essential processes in development and opportunities to learn and

develop different motor skills and physical fitness characteristics through functional activities and play. Basic

locomotor, manipulative and stability skills should be developed in the early childhood years in order to gain

motor control and competence to respond to a variety of stimuli (Gallahue et al. 2012). The everyday activities

require that children master different motor skills. Among these are the skills that are essential to biological

functioning such as crawling, walking, and running, as well as those required for adequate social functioning,

such as dressing and playing (Haga, Haapala and Sigmundsson, 2019). Motor competence can be conceptualized

as a persons ability to execute different motor actions, including coordination of both fine and gross motor

skills. Motor competence is found to significantly impact upon the likelihood of participation in physical activity

and overall performance on different fitness components (Haga, 2008; Catuzzo et al., 2016).

Young children who master different movements and have a comprehensive motor repertoire tend to

have an improved basis for participation in various physical activity play, sports, and games, and as a

consequence increase their fitness levels. Additionally, physically fit children are more likely to be more

physically active and to continue to develop their motor competence (Sigmundsson and Haga, 2016). Typically,

preschoolers engage in different forms of energetic play which is described as play behavior that is of moderate

to vigorous intensity, such that metabolic activity is well above resting metabolic rate (Pellegrini and Smith

1998). Forms of physical activity play include for example gross locomotor movements (like running, climbing

and chasing) which can be categorized as aerobic activities involving large muscle groups, depending on their

intensity. Analyses of age trends in such energetic play suggest an inverted U-shape development course with a

likely peak around four to five years (Dwyer, Baur, and Hardy, 2009; Pellegrini and Smith 1998). Brown et al.

(2009) found walking, running, crawling, jumping, skipping and climbing to be the most commonly physical

activity behavior within preschools.

fitness. The more time a child spends in such physically active play the more opportunity they have to increase

their fitness and to gain experience and practice that influences the rate and direction of their motor development

(Haga, Haapala and Sigmundsson, 2019). Children with a poor motor proficiency may tend to avoid or withdraw

from activities that require a considerable extent of motor performance. Because of this, the skilllearning gap

will further increase between children with low motor competence and their peers as the latter group will

generally achieve a higher level of motor competence and begin to participate in even more demanding physical

activity tasks. Given that the activity deficit gap between children with low and high motor competence

apparently widens with age, children with low motor competence continue to be more physically inactive

compared to the latter group as they age. Indeed, longitudinal studies confirm that these relative differences in

fitness components between children with high and low motor competence tend to persist as children grow older

(Haga, 2009). In general, the association between different physical fitness components and motor competence

can potentially be explained by physical activity patterns and levels; the type, amount, and intensity of physical

activity impact upon aspects of physical fitness and motor development/learning. Different activities promote

different physiological adaptations, that is, changes in the various physical fitness components depend on the

type of activity performed.

Physical activity and physical fitness are associated with numerous health benefits and behavioral

outcomes. There is still insufficient evidence about the type and amount of physical activity required for some

health benefit in young children; however, both physical activity and physical fitness have been identified as

factors that affect overweight and obesity, cardiovascular disease risk factors, skeletal health, mental health, and

cognitive performance in young people (Janssen and LeBlanc, 2010). Therefore, it is recommended that young

children achieve a daily level of physical activity of at least 180 minutes in varying intensity, and at least 1 hour

of energetic play of the moderate to high intensity at the age of 5 years. In addition, sedentary activities over

extended periods should be minimized. Because of an increased risk of various health and psychological

concerns due to inactivity and low activity levels, the behavior of preschool children in various environmental

contexts has been investigated (Tortella et al., 2016; 2019). Children spend many hours in the kindergarten, and

the staff has a special responsibility to facilitate active physical play and thereby influence the level of physical

activity. However, a common finding is that physical activity levels are lower than recommended in preschool

(Reilly, 2010). A Norwegian study reports that 32 percent of the girls and 67% of the boys reached the

recommended level of 60 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day during their time in preschool

(Andersen et al., 2017). Italian preeschoolers generally spend little time in physical activity and movement

activities, and the emphasis is mainly on fine motor skills (Tortella et al., 2011).

Outdoor environment and movement-based play

Type, location and organization of spaces (indoor and outdoor) impact upon the physical activity

levels of preschool children (Dowda et al., 2009). In general, the presence of opportunities for practicing

movement-based play is an important predictor of the levels of physical activity (Sando, 2019), and the early

child education and care (ECEC) institutions are found to be influential on childrens physical activity levels.

Thus, promoting childrens physical activity in ECEC institutions may benefit childrens health and well-

being. However, there is a great variety in how national guidelines for ECEC programs consider the

importance of motor development and learning, physical active play and outdoor environment as educational

goals for educators in ECEC institutions across countries.

In recent years, Norway have had an increased focus on quality in the ECEC sector. Norwegian governmental

policies are based on the value that ECEC institutions are central to childrens development, learning and health.

Moreover, the physical environment is an integral part of the learning environment in ECEC institutions and is

of importance for childrens well-being, experiences and learning (Ministry of Education and Research, 2017).

Promoting physical activity and play both indoor and outdoor is a core value in the curriculum. Body,

movement, food and health is a one out of 7 knowledge areas in the Framework Plan for the Norwegian ECEC

institutions (Ministry of education and Research, 2017) and highlight the promotion of children's health by

physical activity and a varied and healthy diet. The curriculum states that the physical environment in

kindergartens shall be safe and challenging and give the children opportunities for engaging in varied forms of

movement. Habits and patterns of behavior begin to take shape from an early age and kindergartens shall enable

all the children to discover the joy of movement. The children shall be included in activities in which they can

engage in and experience well-being, joy and achievement through a variety of physical activities, indoors and

outdoors, all year round.

The Framework Plan highlight that children shall continue to develop their motor skills, body control,

co-ordination and physical capabilities and experience risky play through physical challenges. Additionally, the

staff are responsible for designing the physical environment facilitating all children to actively participate in play

and other activities and ensure that adequate toys and equipment are accessible to the children (Ministry of

education and Research, 2017).

The theory of affordances

The physical environment can be defined as the objective and perceived characteristics of the physical

context and may influence childrens possibilities for play and exploration. Physical elements of the ECEC

MONIKA HAGA

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environment includes the landscape, buildings, furniture, playground equipment, natural elements, toys, and

objects. Gibson's theory of affordances (Gibson, 1977) is an advantageous perspective to get a deeper

knowledge of how the physical environment influences childrens behavior. The theory of affordances focuses

on what children perceive in their environment and suggests an interconnection between the environment and

the child. Moreover, in order for activities to be possible, the child must perceive them as such. For example, an

object such as a tree trunk will only be used by a child if it is perceived as a usable affordance that is designed

for play. Affordances can often be perceived differently by a child compared to an adult. While the child could

see an object to climb and balance on top of, the adult only perceives this as an obstacle that must be forced by

crossing over. Typically, affordances that can be found in the physical ECEC environment is objects and places

(Sando, 2019). Objects can be both fixed and portable, and have different qualities like substance, surface, form

and color. Places refers to locations in the environment that offer sets of affordances, like localizations with

different physical structures and objects affording different possibilities.

Several attributes of the outdoor environment seem to influence childrens physical activity levels and

motor development, including paths, portable and fixed play equipment, open spaces and natural elements

(Sando, 2019). The different characteristics of these attributes facilitate activities and motor skills such as

walking, running, climbing, jumping, cycling, chasing, balancing and jumping. The different terrain, materials,

surfaces, spaces and areas in the outdoor environment are perceived as affordances and offers, invites and

inspires the child to move and be active. Affordances emerge from the interaction between the child and the

environment; how the child perceive the information surrounding it will effect on the movements, but the

childs actions (movements and physical activity) will also influence the perception of the environments and

what possibilities the child grasps in the environment.

Conclusion

The ECEC institutions are found to play an influential role on childrens physical activity levels, as

opportunities for practicing different outdoor movement-based play will increase the levels of physical activity.

Thus, promoting childrens physical activity in ECEC institutions may benefit childrens health and well-being.

Habits and patterns of behavior are established from an early age and kindergartens shall enable children to

discover the joy of movement. In this context, the social environment is also important for children's active play,

highlighting the staff's ability to motivate, engage, organize and facilitate movement-based play. Based on the

existing evidence, it is important to ensure childrens access to activities and outdoor environments that promote

physically active play and motor development, and that reduce sedentary behavior. Childrens motor competence

and physical fitness should be encouraged, as they may serve as positive and sustainable trajectories of health

behavior and lead to positive long-term health outcomes