EDP 310: Learning & Memory LESSON 2 LECTURE: BRAIN BASICS What is Learning? change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience. Long term Principles & Theories of Learning principles tell us how or what factors are responsible for learning theories tell us why these factors are meaningful A theory is a system for: 1 integrating existing information about some class of phenomenon 2 allowing prediction of future events and empirical findings Theories Pros Cons Summarize past findings Can't explain everything Prompt new research Can lead to bias Explain findings Help foster learning Theories Theories Theories Theories You learn... 10% of what you read. 20% of what you hear. 30% of what you see. 50% of what you see and hear. 70% of what you say or write. 90% of what you say and do. Brain Basics Neurons What neurons look like Image: http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/neurons_1.gif The Brain: Basic Neurology Neurons in the Brain Neurons How messages are carried? Sensory neurons Interneurons Motor neurons Receive information from the environment Integrate information from multiple places in the body Tell the body how to behave in response to stimuli The Nervous System Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain and spinal cord Coordinates Activities Makes Decisions Peripheral Nervous System Manages everything else Carries message from sensory receptors to CNS An example of neurons at work Imagine... it's July and you just got into your car and touched the steering wheel. It's hot - not enough to burn you, but still uncomfortable. The Brain: Structures & Functions Where thinking takes place Keeps us alive, coordinated Important Brain Parts Cerebral cortex Frontal lobes, parietal lobes, and occipital lobes Temporal Lobes Limbic System Hippocampus and amygdala Important Brain Parts Image: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/9549.htm Important Brain Parts Image: Living, Learning Brain _2 diagrams excerpt from Teaching with the Brain in Mind by Eric Jensen. Right-brained or left-brained? Neither! Everyone thinks with both. work together and communicate through the corpus The hemispheres callosum. Right-brained or left-brained? Image: http://hubpages.com/hub/Right-Brain-VS-Left-Brain-Functions# About the Left Brain Controls the right side of the body. Analysis: talking, reading, writing, math skills, computer programming Reading & Math: parts > whole Language: syntax, literal meaning of words About the Right Brain Controls the left side of the body. Synthesis: recognize faces, geometrical patterns, map reading, drawing, music appreciation, humor, emotions Visual/spatial: whole > parts Language: multiple meanings (sarcasm), context Brain Development brain stem - regulatory functions are formed and refined limbic system - responsible for social and emotional development neocortex - responsible for memory Brain Development synaptic pruning - eliminating weaker synaptic contacts while stronger connections are kept and strengthened to help our brains become more efficient Factors Affecting Development Genes + environmental opportunities Plasticity: ability of brain to adapt Types of skills we learn: Experience-expectant Experience-dependent Limitations on plasticity Critical periods are age ranges in which experience must occur in order to have a particular effect Are we prewired to learn language? Nativism is the belief that the human brain is specifically predisposed to learn language Why does this make sense? Dual Language Immersion 1 are there advantages to learning a second language at a younger age versus an older age? 2 what might be some program? 3 any drawbacks? benefits of this What happens when we learn? Neurogenesis = new neurons Consolidation = newly information organized The end. Image: http://www.giantmicrobes.com/ EDP 310: Learning & Memory LESSON 3 LECTURE: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Two methods by which we learn 1 classical - learning by association 2 operant - learning by rewards and punishments Both grew out of a field known as behaviorism. Behaviorism Pre-1900s: think introspection...say what you Early 1900s: behaviorism...study learning by observing behavior, rather than unobservable mental events. Behaviorism Learning principles applied to many behaviors and many species Focus on stimuli and responses (S --> R) Study observable processes, not thoughts Learning is a change in behavior Organisms are blank slates at birth Environment is key to learning Simplest theories are best Classical Conditioning Basics Terminology Neutral stimulus = NS UCS Unconditioned response = UCR Conditioned stimulus = CS Conditioned response = CR Unconditioned stimulus = Classical Conditioning Example (Pavlov) UCS --> UCR NS --> Nothing Bell --> No salivate Food --> Salivate (occurs naturally) (no reason for it to happen) UCS + NS --> UCR CS --> CR Food + Bell --> Salivate Bell --> Salivate By being paired with food, the bell is taking on the food's meaning... Image: http://grammarwench.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/pavlov-dogs.jpg ...and is eventually able to elicit salivation all by itself. Classical Conditioning Example (Watson) John Watson conducted the Little Albert experiment conditioned a stimulus fear response to an unusual Classical Conditioning Examples (Pavlov) Watch the video clip from The Office on Pavlov's Theory. Source: http://createyourownimage.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/pavlov-dog.png Classical Conditioning Examples (Real) Food aversions Dark rooms and sleep Advertising and brand name logos Phobias Source: http://www.cartoonstock.com/newscartoons/cartoonists/cgo/lowres/cgon580l.jpg What is Extinction? Extinction is when conditioning stops and the organism may eventually stop performing CR Spontaneous recovery is when, after a period of rest following extinction, presenting the CS may once again elicit the Image: http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/morris5/medialib/images/f05_08.gif Generalization and Discrimination generalization is when other stimuli take on the same meaning as the CS, and also elicit CR discrimination is when CR occurs in the presence of CS, but not with other similar stimuli Fixing Bad Conditioned Responses Extinction - process is slow, and doesn't work if people avoid both UCS and CS entirely Counterconditioning - replace CR with a new, better response that is incompatible with the bad one (Systematic desensitization) What is Classical Conditioning to You? If you want to learn something, try to form as many associations with it as possible and strengthen those associations. If you need to break a bad habit, try substituting a new stimulus-response relationship for it Be aware of all of association. learning by Simply turning on the TV exposes you to classical conditioning! EDP 310: Learning & Memory LESSON 3 LECTURE: OPERANT CONDITIONING Operant Conditioning Basics Edward Thorndike introduced the law of effect 1 response followed by satisfaction more likely to occur 2 response followed by discomfort less likely to occur increase and punished responses diminish and disappear rewarded responses Operant Conditioning Basics Skinner introduced operant conditioning 1 response followed by reinforcer more likely to occur again 2 response followed by punishment likely to occur again less Operant Conditioning Image: http://youarenotsosmart.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/screenshot_50d.jpg?w=260&h=300 Operant Conditioning Summary Positive consequence (reinforcer) Behavior more likely to happen again Behavior Negative consequence (punishment) Behavior less likely to happen again Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Behavior Reinforcement primar y vs . seconda ry Behavior Reinforcement positive vs. negative reinforcers positive = giving something good negative = taking away something bad The Premack Principle high-frequency response reinforces low-frequency response enjoys used to get child to do unpleasant activity the child activities. Image: http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4099/4747776030_8ab7e495ff_o.jpg Punishment punishment I vs. punishment II giving something bad II = taking away something good I= Don't mix up negative reinforcement and punishment! The bottom line: reinforcement is always intended to make a behavior more likely, and punishment is always intended to make it less likely. Reinforcement vs. Punishment Examples Image: http://www.abacon.com/slavin/images/t48.gif Extinction in Operant Conditioning extinction is when you stop reinforcing behavior and behavior slowly declines can increase right after extinction before declining behavior Extinction Burst Reinforcement schedules Continuous Ratio schedules: based on # of responses Interval schedules: based on time vs. intermittent Fixed Variable Fixed ratio Reinforce after specific # of responses Variable ratio Reinforce after varied # of responses (different each time) Ex: $5 for every 10 magazines sold Ex: playing a slot machine Fixed interval Reinforce first response after specific interval of time has passed Variable interval Reinforce first response after varied interval of time has passed (different each time) Ex: picking up your paycheck every 2 weeks Ex: checking your email Avoidance learning Classical conditioning: we associate cues with aversive experiences Operant conditioning: avoiding these cues is negatively reinforcing (relieves anxiety) Avoidance behavior can be very difficult to extinguish. By avoiding, we never learn that aversive experience might not actually happen! Image: http://www.mdjunction.com/components/com_joomlaboard/uploaded/images/Stivers_cartoon_9_24_01_high_school_display.jpg Generalization and Discrimination generalization - perform behaviors in other similar situations expecting same reinforcement or punishment discrimination - perform behaviors in one situation but not another, knowing when consequences will be present What is Operant Conditioning to You? When first teaching someone to do something, it's best to use continuous reinforcement Once a skill is learned, using intermittent reinforcement can help maintain that behavior over time Use the Premack Principle and yourself! on both others Self Test Is this mom using reinforcement or punishment? What type? hint: does she want to increase or decrease a behavior? Is she giving or taking something away? Image: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_lesansiKlx1qg7abxo1_250.gif The end. EDP 310: Learning & Memory Lesson 4 Lecture: Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) People learn through observing others' behaviors Learning can happen without an overt change in behavior Consequences of behaviors observed are important Cognition is important People can control their learning Modeling Modeling is doing what others do Connecting reinforcement with modeling Observer gets reinforced by model Observer gets reinforced by a third person Imitated behavior leads to reinforcement Vicarious reinforcement is when seeing someone else get reinforced leads the observer to model that behavior What can SCT explain that behaviorism cannot? Delayed imitation: we can model behaviors a long while after first observing them Vicarious reinforcement: we can exhibit new behaviors that we've personally never been reinforced for Cognition - The \"C\" in SCT Learning is a mental process We form outcome expectations We form efficacy expectations We still learn even if our expectations don't come true Image: http://media.photobucket.com/image/recent/sirmartz/calvin-on-lowering-expectations.png Reciprocal Causation Person Your thoughts and feelings Environment Behavior The world around you, including other people Your actions and choices What can modeling do for us? Can teach new behaviors Can promote or reduce existing behaviors Can promote behaviors previously forbidden that were Can increase frequency of similar behaviors Image: http://www.hawaiiparents.org/images/comic.gif Types of Models live model - person demonstrates an actual behavior symbolic model is when a person or character is portrayed in book, film, television, videogame, or other medium verbal instructions is when descriptions of how to behave without another person being present at all What makes an effective model? Competency Power and prestige \"Gender-appropriate\" behavior Relevance to the person's situation Behaviors Learned Through Modeling Almost anything! Some examples: Academics Aggression Moral values Caution: Given conflicting messages, kids are more likely to model what a person does than what a person says! What's needed for modeling to take place? Attention - focused on model Retention - rehearsal and memory codes Motor reproduction - physically copy behavior Motivation - feel compelled to perform Self-Efficacy Believing you are capable of something Why is it important? Determines activities we choose to do Affects the goals we set Affects amount of effort/persistence we put in Self-Efficacy for Learning vs. Performance Self-efficacy for learning Self-efficacy for performance Image: http://www.eajohansson.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Screen-shot-2011-05-05-at-11.50.59-AM.png What affects self-efficacy? task Support/criticism from other people Success/failure of others in similar situations Success/failure of the group as a whole Past success/failure at the Self-Regulation Relies heavily on cognition 4 components... Setting goals/standards Self-observation Self-evaluation Self-reaction Tips for Successful Self-Regulation Use self-instructions talk yourself through what you need to do Use self-monitoring Observe yourself and keep track Use self-reinforcement Reward yourself Use self-imposed stimulus control Place self in productive environments Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths Considers how context and environment influence behavior \"Among the most testable theories in psychology\" Weaknesses More depth needed in link to cognitive development Better understanding of specific conditions, reinforcements for particular behavioral outcomes needed Educational Implications observing others Clear consequences can produce appropriate Students learn by behaviors alternative to shaping new behaviors Adults must model appropriate behaviors Expose students to a variety of other models Students must believe they can accomplish school tasks Teachers should help students set realistic expectations Self-regulation techniques improve student behavior Modeling is an The end. EDP 310: Learning & Memory LESSON 5 LECTURE: D E V E L O P M E N TA L P E R S P E C T I V E S O N COGNITION The Developmental View Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky 1896-1980 1896-1934 Piaget Image: http://www.glogster.com/media/5/30/38/75/30387508.jpg Vygotsky Image: http://www.webdersanesi.com/images/fotogaleri/867a69d463.jpg Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Swiss psychologist Theory developed in the 1920s; popular in the 1960s How was Piaget different from behaviorists? Used clinical method Focused on mental processes Image: http://01.edu-cdn.com/files/static/g/pcl_0001_0001_0_img0038.jpg Key Ideas in Piaget's Theory Children are active, motivated learners Children naturally organize what they experience Interaction with physical environment and others is critical Equilibration leads to increasingly complex thought Children think in qualitatively different ways at different age levels Key Ideas in Piaget's Theory Children learn and adapt to environment through two important processes: Assimilation - use an existing scheme in your mind to deal with an event Accommodation - modify an existing scheme or make a new scheme to deal with an event Equilibrium & Disequilibrium equilibrium - being able to address new events using existing schemes disequilibrium - \"mental discomfort,\" or being unable to address new events with existing schemes equilibration - movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium; promotes the development of increasingly complex forms of thought and knowledge Piaget's Theory Kids' minds are striving for equilibrium Cognitive development proceeds in based on the child's age stages Stage Theory Characteristics of Stages A stage is a structured whole in a state of equilibrium; a group of similar or related entities Each stage both derives from the previous stage and incorporates and transforms that stage Stages follow an invariant sequence Stages are universal Each stage includes a \"coming into being\" (transition phase) and a \"being\" (stable state, established structure Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage (Age 0 - 2) Infants start with reflexes and progress to trying voluntary behaviors with objects Goal-directed behavior Object permanence Beginnings of symbolic thought Image: http://psychology4a.com/Toast_permanence.jpg Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage (Age 0 - 2) \"I watched him playing with a ball. It was before my own children were born. The ball rolled under an armchair; he went looking for it and found it. He threw it again. It disappeared under a deep sofa with a fringe. He couldn't find the ball. Then he went back to the armchair, where he had found it before. \" In sensorimotor period: children learn about properties of objects and how they relate cognitive structures become more organized behavior becomes more intentional self is differentiated from environment Stage 2: Preoperational Stage (Age 2 - 6/7) Kids are now adept at representing objects and people mentally Egocentrism is the inability to see things as others would Difficulty with: Class inclusion Conservation Image: http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/devel/ibank/image/0054.jpg Stage 2 child would say there is more in C than A! Stage 2: Preoperational Stage (Age 2 - 6/7) Symbolic representation Language skills grow extensively Limited mental manipulation Egocentrism Failure to conserve Around 4 or 5, children do show early signs of thinking more logically Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (Age 6/7 - 11/12) Children think logically and become adept at understanding the views of others Conservation is truly mastered Able to apply logical thinking only to Stage 3 child would say A and C are equal! concrete objects or events Image: http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/devel/ibank/image/0054.jpg Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage http://www.ihasafunny.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/ihasafunny-penguin-does-not-have-good-logic.jpg (Age 11/12 - Adulthood) Capable of thinking logically about abstract concepts Proportional thinking Separating and controlling variables Testing hypotheses Able to evaluate their own thinking Stage 4 child would (hopefully) not make this mistake! Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (Age 11/12 - Adulthood) Structures that develop: Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is formulation and systematic testing of hypotheses Scientific-inductive reasoning is reasoning from specific to general Reflective abstraction reasoning is reasoning internally and more abstractly Current Views on Piaget's Theory Piaget may have underestimated the cognitive abilities of young children Piaget may have overestimated the cognitive abilities of older children Experience is more important than Piaget implied Piaget's stages may not be universal across cultures Neo-Piagetian theorists are built upon Piaget's views. Piaget's Theory and Learning We can learn from hands-on experiences Disequilibrium can motivate us to learn Interacting with peers is important We learn best when the topic is familiar Clinical method is useful for studying learning Piaget's stages identify when cognitive changes will likely happen Basics mastered before advanced learning occurs Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) Russian psychologist Theory developed in the 1920s; popular in the 1960s-80s How was Vygotsky different from Piaget? Emphasized role of adults in fostering kids' learning Adults structure kids' learning mage: http://www.sciencephoto.com/image/103089/530wm/C0038863-Lev_Vygotsky,_Soviet_psychologist-SPL.jpg Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural = other people are crucial to learning Biology is responsible for lower mental processes Experience is responsible for higher mental processes Kids learn culturally appropriate ways to interpret and respond to the world from adults Cultures easier pass down tools that make life Key Ideas in Vygotsky's Theory Some cognitive processes are seen in many species, while others are unique to humans Adults convey cultural interpretations through informal interactions & formal schooling Every culture passes along physical and cognitive tools Thought & language become interdependent Complex mental processes begin as social activities & evolve into mental activities Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Education should focus on what individuals are capable of Zone of proximal development (ZPD) = the gap between the actual and potential level of development ---------- POTENTIAL (with others) ZPD ---------- ACTUAL (alone) Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory Kids accomplish difficult tasks with the help of adults actual developmental level is what a child can accomplish on own zone of proximal development is what a child can accomplish with help Tasks within actual developmental level ZPD Tasks currently beyond reach Zone of Proximal Development Recognizes the individual's potential (key) Natural process of development occurs through the socially mediated process of learning \"The distance between the actual level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult supervision or in collaboration with more capable peers.\" Implications - Assessment, teaching, studying development Another look at the ZPD The help of adults allows children to reach and achieve things that they could not achieve on their own. http://www.mrkeenan.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Picture-1.png Modern expansion of Vygotsky's Theory Psychologists have expanded upon his ideas: Mediated learning experiences are when adults stimulate learning by prompting kids to think about topics in new ways Scaffolding helps kids perform challenging tasks Guided participation is involving youth in adult activities Sociocultural & Information Processing Theory Review - IPT likens our brains to computers Intersubjectivity - attention is critical to learning; also need to be aware of what others are attending to in order to learn from them Social construction of memory - conversations with adults can help clarify our memories of events Vygotsky's Theory and Learning first acquire the basics Kids learn best when they talk about experiences We Learn best when we Kids should be given opportunities to perform authentic activities Critical to collaborate with both peers and adults challenged, not excessively Learning should be assessed in multiple ways We learn best when Piaget and Vygotsky think differently at Kids different ages Being challenged is important Kids have to be ready to learn Social interaction is important Source: http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/media/229/20101025-los%20dos.jpg Piaget vs. Vygotsky Cognitive development Language and happens independent of language Kids learn by development are deeply intertwined Kids learn best with the help of adults Interactions with adults are key exploring Peer interactions can be important Cognitive development proceeds similarly across cultures Culture determines the specific skills kids develop A Facebook Dialogue mage: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_Ni-Fk5eAoJ0/TPggaAM-CII/AAAAAAAAAFk/SugU1aTBQYA/s1600/Piaget%253AVygotsky%253AThorndike.png In summary Neither Piaget nor Vygotsky was wholly right or wholly wrong Both psychologists' theories are useful for understanding how we develop and learn over time The end. Source: http://www.susanohanian.org/cartoons/vygotsky.jpg EDP 310: Learning & Memory LESSON 6 LECTURE: THE SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY BY DAN SCHACTER Human Memory Human memory is reliable and fallible How and why memory can get us in trouble 7 basic memory \"sins\" 7 Sins of Memory Types of Forgetting Types of Distortions Transience Misattribution Absentmindedness Suggestibility Blocking Bias Intrusive Recollections Difficult to Forget Persistence Example President Clinton had numerous memory lapses of when he testified before a grand jury The message was clear: How could someone with a seemingly exceptional memory forget as much as Clinton did? Clinton's extraordinary memory vs. his claims of sketchy encounters illustrate a fundamental duality of memory Memory has a darker, more fragile side The Darker Side of Memory Controversy over accuracy of recovered memories and sexual abuse False memories associated with devastating psychological consequences Illusory or false memories = events that never happened Forgetting = most familiar of memory's indiscretions Babyboomers want to know why they forget more frequently now We are affected by memory's shortcomings in our daily lives 7 Sins of Memory Occur frequently in human affairs Seen as exaggerations of human traits that are useful and even necessary for survival Conceptualized as by-products of otherwise desirable features of human memory Evidence from research in cognitive, social and clinical psychology, and neuroscience Transience Decreasing of over time accessibility Information is of information lost from storage over time No success locating exact source of the forgetting in amnesia patients Transience Research fMRI and PET scans show separation between the encoding and retrievals processes fMRIs found where activity during encoding predicted whether words were remembered or not Another study found more activity in the left hemisphere than the right Short-term transience has been demonstrated in brain damaged Absent-mindedness Inattentive or shallow processing that contributes to weak memories of ongoing events Insufficient attention is devoted to a stimulus at the time of encoding or retrieval Source of everyday memory failures These memory failures occur when actions are automatic Absent-mindedness Depth of processing effect = shallow encoding of target information results in worse memory for the target Better memory with deep encoding Occurs at time of retrieval Referred to as failures of prospective memory Can have important everyday consequences Absent-mindedness Event-based prospective memory tasks: Time based prospective memory tasks: Remembering to perform a future action when a specified event occurs Remembering to perform an action at a specified time Such as delivering a message to a friend the next time you see him/her Such as remembering to take a medicine at 8 pm or to turn off the burner on the stove in 5 min. from now Externally cued- forgetting tends to occur when cue is not recognized Depend on generating appropriate cues at the time an intended action needs to be carried out Forgetting tends to occur b/c people fail to prospectively generate retrieval cues ahead of time Examples of Absent-mindedness Cell phones and driving Forgetting to mail a letter Trouble finding your keys Forgetting to take your medicine How to Counteract Absent-mindedness Attend at encoding Constrain attention Engineer for success Blocking Temporary inaccessibility of information that is stored in memory Can occur even when a fact has been encoded deeply and not lost over time Unable to elicit memory even when provided with cues related to the sought-after item Occurs in both episodic and semantic memory People are acutely aware of the block Blocking Tip-of-the-tongue is the most investigated example unable to produce a word or a name Can produce partial phonological or sematic information Often resolved quickly Partially attributable to retrieval of People are similar but incorrect items Blocking old age Regions of the left temporal lobe Especially pronounced in appear to be indicated in semantic memory No neuroimaging studies of tongue tip-of-the- states Neuroimaging studies of episodic memory retrieval have been reported with connection little Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon Misattribution Attributing a recollection or idea to the wrong source Particularly pronounced in older adults Another type is characterized by an absence of any subjective experience of remembering Possible Causes of Misattribution People rely on remembering the gist of things It's possible to reduce false recognition when people focus on distinctive properties Brain-injured patients' frontal lobe damage associated with a selective increase in source memory errors Some studies of neuroimaging have reported evidence suggesting involved frontal regions Suggestibility Memories that are implanted as a result of leading questions or comments during attempts to recall past experiences Recollections of the original event may be altered by the provision of erroneous post-event information Work in this area was initially motivated by concerns about the potentially damaging effects of eyewitness testimony Also closely related to the controversy over false memories of childhood sexual abuse Studies have established that it is possible to implant false memories Suggestibility Limitation in these false memory studies is that experimenters cannot determine definitely whether a target event actually occurred False confessions are when suggestions contribute to the creation of false memories Cognitive neuroscience approaches have contributed little or nothing to explain this Suggestibility - Eye Witness Testimony Loftus conducted a study asking participants to watch a video of a Subjects were then car accident asked \"How fast was the car going when it...\" Average times were higher depending on the verb used by the experimenter Eye Witness Testimony Leading questions may estimate bias Questions may change how people remember the event Example: higher mph averages when used the word \"smashed\" vs. \"hit\" 1 week later = asked if remembered broken glass Most answered no, but: 32% yes = \"smashed\" 14% yes = \"hit\" 12% yes = control group Eye Witness Testimony As time increased after viewing video, couldn't distinguish the facts from the effects of questioning Typical eye witness testimony Bias Retrospective distortions and unconscious influences related to current knowledge, beliefs, and expectations People's recollections exaggerate the consistency between their past and present Studied of memories of people in romantic relationships Observed in men and women, but more in men Bias Stable over time = overestimate consistency between past attitudes and current ones Changed over time = overestimate differences between current and past attitudes Past experiences = subtle influence on current judgments about other people and groups Retrospectives biases well-established in cognitive and social psychology studies Largely unexplored by cognitive neuroscience Persistence Pathological remembrances: information of events that we cannot forget Studies show that failures to forget be more disabling than forgetting itself posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Can occur in persons with can Persistence Persistence of negative memories enhanced by ruminative tendencies in individuals with depressive moods Neuroscience analyses find that emotion persisting memories depend on a specific limbic system structure Damage to the amygdala associated with impairments in recalling emotional elements of stories Release of stress hormones that influence activity in amygdala contribute to persisting emotional memories Costs of an Adaptive System? There are many ways in which memory can land us in trouble Typical view of human memory is that it is a defective system, and loss of retrieval access is a central weakness of the system Schacter's view: 7 sins can be usefully viewed as by-products of otherwise adaptive features of memory How could these be useful? Useful and necessary to forget information no longer current Information that is no longer needed will tend to not be retrieved and rehearsed A system the exhibits gradual forgetting is adapted to the demands of its environment Without blocking, all information relevant to a retrieval cue rapidly springs to mind How could these be useful? If all events were registered in elaborate detail, the result would be overwhelming Memory for gist is clutter fundamental for certain abilities, and may result in transfer and generalization across tasks Schemas can perform important organizing functions in cognition Emotionally arousing experiences that persist over time provide a basis for long lasting memories The end