Max Weber considers the formal structure as a tool for reaching different goals. This perception is still the hypothesis of many structural analyses, both for practitioners and scientists. The simplified hypothesis may be arranged in the following way: Strategy Formal Activities and Result structure implementation Figure 2.4: Structure as a link between strategy and implementation In a chain like this, the formal structure will assume a very central position. Its job is to translate the strategy for the organizational level. If the management makes serious mistakes win this translation, it may be difficult to reach the goals set by the management. Weber works in great detail with causes for establishing hierarchical structures, and among the main causes, he emphasizes: 1. Hierarchy is caused by size. The spontaneous tendency to cooperate and coordinate, which is found in small systems (family and other small groups], fails when a larger number of people must work together. Even though the tasks are not very complicated, a vertical segregation of duties will develop. Implementers, who distribute tasks, regulate, coordinate, reward and punish, will occur 2. Hierarchy is caused by complexity. This thesis may be called the specialization thesis. When the tasks and/or the technique are complex, a vertical segregation of duties will develop. The complexity will require expertise, planning, coordination and control. Specialists will constitute an important part of the hierarchy technocracy. 3. Hierarchy is caused by internal and external conflicts. Organizations in an environment, which is characterized by competition and conflict, need a centre for decision-making, which can make quick decisions and put them into practice. Furthermore, there will always be a need for a hierarchy, which can solve internal conflicts concerning objectives and means. 4. Hierarchy is caused by people's need for management. Spontaneous coordination will always be vulnerable, but managers create stability around goals and means in organizations. Abstract programs are rarely inspiring but people can identify with managers. Today, this thesis can be found in part of the literature about management and culture. Good managers create strong cultures. 5. Hierarchy is caused by class struggle. The production facility will always be the main stage for class struggles, which may take many shapes. A struggle over the right to manage and distribute work takes place. Through mechanizing, automation and planning, the staff's control of the work is reduced. This transfers power resources from the horizontal work process to the vertical structures. Figure 2.5: Five theses on causes for hierarchy 2.4 Organizational structure On the basis of Weber's thoughts about organizational structure as a link between the company's strategy and implementation of action plans, the following models for organizational structures will be discussed: . Simple structure . Hierarchical system Functional organization Product organization Matrix organizationThe simplest type of hierarchy is found in small companies where the owner participates in the work. Coordination takes place spontaneously: there are no levels between the owners and the employee(s). Many employers want top managers who are assigned certain contact and supervision tasks and serve as substitutes for their employers during vacation and sickness. This type is called the simple structure". 2.4.2 Hierarchical organization When the organization grows bigger, a hierarchical system will develop as shown in the figure below. The hierarchy may serve many different purposes in the organization, but often, importance is attached to authority and the right to make certain types of decisions. Earlier, when analyzing hierarchies. inspiration was derived from military systems, hence the concepts of line and staff, which appear in many organizational analyses. Line is referred to as a chain of command in military terminology. FACTCARDS Factcards.nl offers all the information that you need if Are you working in academia, research or you wish to proceed your career in the Netherlands. science? And have you ever thought about working and moving to the Netherlands? The information is ordered in the categories arriving, living. studying working and research in the Netherlands and it is Studying Living freely and easily accessible from your smartphone or Arriving desktop. Research VISIT FACTCARDS.NL WorkingManaging director Director Director Director Dept. Dopt. Dept Dept. Dept. Dept manager I manager II manager III manager IV manager V manager VI Group Group Group Group manager manager manager manage manager manager Figure 2.6: Hierarchical organization 2.4.3 Functional organization The functional organization has some obvious advantages, but it also has large disadvantages. The expertise in the organization is centralized and enabled to develop further. This will also involve a kind of cultural homogencity: People have the same academic background, they use the same technical models, and they perform tasks within the same function. All these factors are seemingly fine, but the problem is that the different professional groups distinguish themselves, distance themselves from each other, do not understand each other and easily come into conflicts with each other. Managing director Functions Functions Functions Functions Functions manager manager manager . manager manager Staff Research & Accounting Development Production Marketing functions Figure 2.7: Functional organization 2.4.4 Product organization Product organization is a significant form of organization today. It is particularly useful in organizations with clearly separated product groups or services. Quick changes in competitive conditions and technology cause great advantages for this organizational form in preference to functional organization". The advantages of product organization are that the specialists in the organization are able to focus on one specific product group and make quick decisions. Also, the final result will also be much clearer than in functional organization where responsibilities are often volatilized.Managing dirctor Staff and training PR planning Check Financing Product group I Product group II Product group III Transport Transport Transport Purchasing Purchasing Purchasing Production Production Production Finances Finances Finances Sale Sale Sale Staff staff Staff (operators) (operators) (operators) Figure 2.8: Product organization The above mentioned organizational forms will experience difficulties if they are faced with extensive and complex tasks, which depend on cooperation across functions and divisions. These may be development tasks or demanding non-recurring operations. In order to handle such a task, many organizations have experimented with different structural solutions, which include setting up groups or project groups across the established structure (basic organization). The language use in these solutions is a bit hesitant. There are three types of organizations; ad hoc organizations, project organizations or matrix organizations. It is not a matter of making repairs on an organization but of developing a double-acting organization in which large parts of the organization are prepared to live with crossing lines. 2.4.5 Matrix organization The matrix principle or matrix organization may be referred to as a theoretical model which can be realized in different ways. The principles of the matrix organization are shown in the figure below with the functions; logistics, production and sale and the three products 1, 2 and 3. Note that only functions that directly influence logistics, production and sale are included in the figure, while other functions such as accounting are not included.Top management Functional orientation Logistics Production Sale Product 1 Planning Object orientation Product 2 Purchasing Product 3 Stock Figure 2.9: Examples of matrix organization Example of matrix organization Many industrial companies decide to improve their competitiveness through intensive focus on the business processes logistics, quality and costs. Companies, which want to improve their performance, often establish a taskforce, which typically consists of staff analysts. In doing so, a conflict of interest may arise between top management's auxiliary arm and the rest of the organization. The consequence is that change projects lack support and ownership and therefore must be forced through. Several companies acknowledge that the individual entities cannot go any further in these areas without sub optimizing. and this may be recommended in preference to working according to matrix organization. Demands on organizing The company can continue working by establishing an LQC group (logistics, quality and costs), whose job is to initiate analyses, start projects and implement these primarily within the areas; logistics, quality and costs. Each main area points out middle managers for the groups who have competences in logistics. quality and costs. This matrix principle structure secures the group in-depth knowledge of all parts of the organization. In this way, the matrix organization becomes the pioneer in an organizational development which aims at better competitiveness. Each member of the group should in principle be able to spend an agreed percentage of his working time on LQC work. The LQC group should share responsibility for choosing and initiating projects and for establishing working groups for the individual subprojects. In this organizational form, a project should not be initiated without having a sponsor, i.e. (at least) one manager who has announced that he will carry the project through the company's management team. In doing so, it is possible to ensure interaction with the budget holders and make sure that projects and expenses do not suddenly get out of control.Four challenges To begin with, the concept of a matrix organization sounds good and right, but it is not easy to make a matrix organization work. The greatest challenges in this type of matrix organization are assessed to be: . Shared starting point . Shared image of the task . Progress . Communication and involvement In order to ensure a shared starting point and shared understanding and responsibility, it is recommended to hold a number of meetings for the entire team. However, middle managers typically have a number of operational tasks which require their presence, and that may make it difficult to gather the entire team. Creating a shared image of the idea of the task is another challenge. Different academic background's and subcultures make it necessary to devote great efforts to teambuilding. Struggling to get interviews? Professional CV consulting & writing assistance from leading job experts in the UK. Visit siteA third challenge is to make progress in the process. The group must become good at brainstorming and at locating significant problem areas. Also, the group must learn to transform this into concrete projects and ensure that someone heads the project. A possible pitfall is that the LQC group turns into a discussion club, which does not show results. We recommend having focus on project management and personal responsibility. A fourth challenge is to prepare project descriptions which can be communicated to all parts of the organization, i.c. even the man on the shop floor. This is necessary as one of the LOC group's purposes is to create involvement within the organization and to maintain this involvement. Process experience An important process experience is that matrix identity is also linked to physical identity. Good meeting rooms facilitate permanent affiliation to the matrix. There should be places where the matrix organization can store papers etc. so that each participant feels linked to a shared culture. It is recommended to create a reasonable relationship between messages from the management about the importance of the matrix organization, and the facilities made available. The matrix organization may clash with the company's position structure and reward system, hence with the participants' prioritization of their own working time. Therefore, all members of the matrix organization must have the opportunity to make the agreed part of their working time available to the project. A possible pitfall is that members of the group may tend to give first priority to tasks in their own department as members are only educated and rewarded according to their performance in the individual departments. Results The LQC matrix can create the necessary subprojects, e.g. within logistics, quality and costs, and contribute to the company's competitiveness. The LQC matrix structure may also be a motive force to obtaining better business results and organizational development - implemented as part of the operation. 2.4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of structures There are no perfect organizational forms and no completely correct solutions when it comes to structuring an organization. The figure below presents an outline of advantages and disadvantages of the reviewed forms of organizations. Functional organization Product organization Matrix organizationOrganizational form Advantages Disadvantages 1. Promotes members' professional 1. Creates Large differences between identity and career paths department 2. Easy to manage/administer 2 Requires more time for problem Allows maximum specialization within solving Function a field 3. Difficult to locate responsibility 4. Other departments have access to for results expertise Does not develop broadly oriented top manager 1. Simplifies coordination between 1. Duplication of efforts between functions departments 2. Enables significant growth without loss 2. Reduces professional of control specialization Product Clarifies business performance Promotes competition between (services or area/region) responsibilities divisions 4. Clarifies objectives for division and 4. Promotes sub-optimization motivates divisional management 5. Moves decision-making authority closer to the problems Promotes coordination possibilities 1. Long break-in period 2. Relieves top management of Generates many conflicts coordination tasks 3. Weakens professional identity 3. Develops flexibility and quick reactions 4. Large administrative costs Matrix 4. Promotes financial use of human resources . Stimulates motivation Important for socializing and training of younger employees Figure 2. 10: Advantages and disadvantages of different organizational forms 24.7 Differences between hierarchical and flat structure In his book "Tear down the Pyramids"", Jan Carlsson focuses on advantages of flat organizations and direct communication throughout the organization. In doing so, attention is also focused on the employees under the individual manager; often referred to as "span of control" or a manager's control area. Several employees under one manager may contribute to a flatter structure and thereby fewer middle managers. This is illustrated by the figure below:234 1074 Number of muddle managers - Number of militia managers - Figure 2.11: Number of employers in hierarchical and flat structures In the example above, the number of middle managers is reduced from 1.364 to $84. 24.8 Mechanical and organic organizations Mechanical systems are simple, dynamic systems with fixed movements like clockwork. Organizations cannot be considered machines because they are social systems in constant movement. In contrast. organizations must be considered a mechanism consisting of actions and interdependent parts. Organizations are no longer held together by formal structures and specific objectives, but rather by informal structures. Thus, the focus of attention is the actual behavioral structure and relations between the individual members of the organization. school 93% OF MIM STUDENTS ARE WORKING IN THEIR SECTOR 3 MONTHS FOLLOWING GRADUATION MASTER IN MANAGEMENT STUDY IN THE CENTER OF MADRID AND TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE UNIXIE OPPORTUNITIES THAT THE CAPITAL OF SPAIN OFFERS Length 10 MONTH - PROPEL YOUR EDUCATION BY EARNING A DOUBLE DEGREE THAT BEST SUITS YOUR AY Experience I YEAR Language ENGLISH |SPANISH PROFESSIONAL GOALS . STUDY A SEMESTER ABROAD AND BECOME A GLOBAL CITIZEN WITH THE BEYOND BORDERS Format FULL-TIME Intakes SEPT / FEB EXPERIENCE 5 SPECIALIZATIONS #10 WORLDWIDE 55 NATIONALTIES PERSONALIZE YOUR PROGRAM MASTER IN MANAGEMENT IN CLASS www.ic edulmaster management mim admissionse actu | @ Folow us an IE HIN ExpanenceIn this connection, Burns & Stalker discuss mech by the following features: Criterion Mechanical Organic Specialization 1. The organization's problems and tasks L Importance is attached to expertise are broken down in specialized job and experience as contributions to the functions solving of the organization's common tasks General orientation 2. Individual tasks are structured and 2 Individual tasks are considered in a performed on own technical terms realistic perspective and linked to the without special regard to the entire total situation of the organization organization. Coordination 3. Coordination of tasks takes place on 3. The tasks of the individual are adjusted each hierarchical level through the an redefined continuously through Immediate superior interaction with othery Rights and obligations 4. Accurate definitions of rights, obligations 4. Responsibility is not a question of a and technical methods linked with each limited area of rights, obligations, duties work role and methods Responsibility 5. Responsibility means rights, obligations 5. Development of responsibility as general and technical methods linked to a commitment to the organization, functional position Independent of technical definitions Control 6. Control, authority and communication 6 Control, authority and communication are hierarchically structured are developed in a network structure Information centre 7. The hierarchy is supported by 7. Management is not perceived as centralizing information about ongoing omniscient. Knowledge is located problems at the top of the hierarchy throughout the entire network. Knowledge positions become centers of authority Direction of 8. Tendency to vertical interaction between 8. More horizontal than vertical communication employees, i.e. between superiors and communication in the organization as a subordinates whole Instructions 9. Tendency for tasks and work behavior to 9. Communication consists of information be controlled by superiors and guidance rather than instructions and decisions Loyalty 10. Importance is attached to loyalty 10. Obligation to the organization's tasks to the organization and dutifulness and technical progress and expansion toward superiors as a condition for are assessed higher than loyalty membership Relations outside the 11. Greater importance and prestige are 11. importance and prestige are linked organization attached to knowledge, experience and to the employees' connection and skills of (local) internal nature than to expertise in relation to industrial. more general expertise technical and commercial environments outside the organization Figure 2.12: Two organizational form: CamScannerjoan Woodward was particularly concerned with the question of how an organization's production technology can influence the organizational form. Technology is perceived as part of the organization's external environment or context as something the organization is forced to adapt to. This assumption is problematic. In connection with studies made by a number of industrial companies in different sectors. Woodward developed a variable called technological complexity. It may be divided into three fields: 1. Unit production (one or few products according to special order, e.g. advanced instruments) 2. Mass production (c.g. automotive industry) 3. Continuous process production (e.g. chemical industry, oil refineries) Woodward showed that during unit production, the organizational form was characterized by small working groups with independent responsibility for performing the work. The foremen had high technical skills and worked closely with the workers. The organization was centered on the skills that were present in the production departments, and the administrative structure was relatively small compared to the two other types of technology. Woodward characterizes this organizational form as organic in the same sense as Burns & Stalker. Woodward discovered the strongest contrast to this organizational form in mass production, which required a strongly formalized organizational form. Work was carried out by unskilled workers. It was routine and often checked down to the very last detail by a comprehensive administrative superstructure. Woodward describes the organizational form as bureaucratic: Emphasis on job and position descriptions, much written communication, dear chains of command, strong separation of line and staff and great importance attached to planning. She found three important conflict generating factors in this organizational form: 1. Stress loads in the physical production between the technical system and the workers' social system, 2. Stress loads between lower and higher levels in the management hierarchy in which the lower levels were oriented towards immediate production problems while the higher levels were occupied with long-term problems. 3. Stress loads between line and staff; between decision-making authority and expertise. In a comment on Woodward's studies, Mintzberg (1979) asserts that management in mass producing industry becomes obsessed with control as it assumes that the unskilled workers must be supervised and pressured in order to carry out their work. This control mania reproduces itself from the top throughout the entire organization, causing unfortunate consequences for all employees.Woodward found that conditions were different in the process industry where production was automated. and where relatively few workers were involved. Here, rules and standards were built into the technical productive apparatus itself. This caused large parts of the most burdening work to disappear, and thus. so do the causes of many frictions and conflicts. This organizational form becomes less bureaucratic and more flexible and organic. Woodward's studies have become a more recent classic in organizational theory, and it has inspired a number of studies of the relationship between technical systems organizational forms. However, it has also been sharply criticized on several points; it has been claimed that the technological complexity scale is too coarse, and that it conceals many significant variations in production conditions. A central controversial point has been the question of possibilities of improvements of working environments in the mass producing industry. Woodward has a rather pessimistic view of the possibilities of real reforms. Other scholars have claimed that it is not necessary to put up with the very unfortunate consequences of mass production (isolation, alienation, attrition, turnover and conflicts), and that there are several possibilities of improvements: Line production can be changed, and management conditions and power structure can be democratized. In the Nordic countries, a number of experiments have been performed in these areas. Brain power By 2020, wind could provide one-tenth of our planet's electricity needs. Already today. SKF's innovative know- how is crucial to running a large proportion of the world's wind turbines. Up to 25 1 of the generating costs relate to mainte- nance These can be reduced dramatically thanks to our stems for on-line condition monitoring and automatic ation. We help make it more economical to create clean cheaper energy out of thin air. By shaking our experience, expertise, and creativity. industries call boost performance beyond expectations. Therefore we need the best employees who can et this challenge! The Power of Knowledge Engineering Plug into The Power of Knowledge Engineering. Visit us at www.ski.com/knowledge SKF2.5 Theory of Administrative Behavior - H. Simon Herbert Simon has attempted to clarify the above mentioned characteristics of the rational perspective - goal specificity and formalization - and explain their connection to rational behavior (1976). He moves in an individual-psychological level in that he criticizes the individual understanding which lies in c.$. Taylor's studies. It as a matter of studies of organizations from the macro level. This conforms to the historical development in the use of analysis levels where the social-psychological level was the one used most frequently in early organizational research. Simon's criticism of Taylor's studies means a clash with the "Economic Man', who Simon makes more human by stating that even though the individual seeks his own interests, he is not always aware of his basic interests. The best decision PRESUPPOSES Full Unlimited information sensitivity Rationality PRESUPPOSES PRESUPPOSES Outline of all Detailed Ranking of all alternative knowledge of conditions Choices actions consequences according to Implymaximation priority PRESUPPOSES Always possibility of All preferences preference are transferable Figure 2.13: Economic Man Therefore, the individual no longer experiences complete rational action but only limited rational action. In the figure below, the two individual views are specified. Economic Man . Clear and constant objectives Rational action (Homo economicus) . Full knowledge/information . Optimize utility value . objectives are more unclear a Administrative Man the individual lacks ability to Limited rational (Homo organisans) prioritize . Limited knowledge action Not optimize but satisfyProblem recognition Problem definition Alternatives search Impact assessment Choices Performance/ Implementation Follow-up and feedback Figure 2.15: Stages of decision model/problem solving mode TURN TO THE EXPERTS FOR SUBSCRIPTION CONSULTANCY Subscrybe is one of the leading companies in Europe when it comes to innovation and business development within subscription businesses. We innovate new subscription business models or improve existing ones. We do business reviews of existing subscription businesses and we develope acquisition and retention strategies. Learn more at linkedin.com/company/subscry be or contact Managing Director Morten Suhr Hansen at mha@ subscrybe.dk SIIRSCRYRE - to the futureThe only way to simplify the conditions for the individual members is to allow their work to steer towards some delimited objectives. Simon believes that objectives only affect the individual member if they are significant in his daily conduct. In this way, it becomes the organization's role to delimit the objectives that are significant to the individual member. The objectives support the decision, which is based on two interacting premises: . Value premises - assumptions about which solution is preferable . Factual premises - deal with the observable world, and how it works. Members at the top of the hierarchy typically make use of the value-related component when making decisions, whereas members situated lower in the hierarchy tend to base their decisions on the factual component. Based on these characteristics, what March and Simon call 'objective-mean-chains' occur, in which overall objectives, via consideration with focus on ways and solutions, are divided into a number of sub objectives: Set overall objectives (often based on value premises) "We must be effective!" Overall objectives are analyzed, and means for objective achievement are provided "How can we be effective - e.g. by making sure that machines do not break down" These means become objectives and thereby sub objectives which are analyzed again... "To avoid machines breaking down, all employees who use the machine must be trained in operating it correctly" The chain stops when all members have an objective, which is part of their behavior and can thereby simplify decisions for everybody. Figure 2.16: Objective-mean-chains This process creates an objectives hierarchy with fewer objectives to support the overall objective. The created sub objectives reduce the need for information, and a stable framework is created for the decision of the individual employee. Thus, it is a matter of administrative regulation of behavior via reduction of the individual's decision opportunity in choice situations via setting of objectives on several levels. As mentioned, this is called limited rationality and again includes the two key elements in the rational system - the existence of specific objectives and a formalized structure.34 / 123 - 50% + 8 2.6 Team organization In future companies and organteat ames service, competence development, job satisfaction and financial results are closely connected - closer than ever. Companies will cupcrience even greater challenges in terms of creating learning among employees and promoting a feeling of ownership in relation to the work. Team organization is a structure and working method that complies with these needs and challenges. In 2001, Wey" discovered that team organization is one of the most widespread organizational structures and working methods In American companies with more than 100 employers, approximately 80'% use team organization. Thus, many companies need to move away from a traditional, hierarchical organization and in stead move towardr becoming a team based organization. Find, we will define a team A team is a small number of people with complementary abilities who mutually have committed themselves to a common work objective with a work approach that they will hold each other responsible for " This perception of teams may be applied in many contests, e.g bicycle teams in Tour de France, jet fighters lying together, and a herd of greve also flying in V-formation". A common feature of these and companies is the desire for a structure and working method that are effective in terms of better results, increased job responsibility and satisfaction, increased c tion and improved communication. Like bicycle teams in Tour de France, companies and organizations face questions such as What is the manager's role in relation to the team? . Which degree of management can anage currchel . Which tools can the managers use to establish and farther develop effective teams?" We will now focus on tram organization and the role of the team manager in nader in propose how a company may build a team based structure and how a manager can work in relation to his tram. Introductory, we will briefly outline di nizational forms in order to indicate how a team structure may may be carried out in relation to a team. We listinguich between management of team meed in teams - practical tools which a team manager can implement in different positions. We will conclude by presenting a larger case, which in details describes a manager's considerations and Imposeis in connection with the establishment and development of a team. TEXT Organization..pdf Writing Assignm....docx A a 0 ME2.6.1 Typical team based organizations In this section, we will outline three organizational charts which illustrate different levels in team based organizations. This will show differences between expert teams and cross-functional teams and clarify the structures surrounding a team. Teams may be either specialist or cross-functional. An expert team is a team of e.: . Sales consultants with a common cost objective. The members have complementary competences . A team of home helpers who perform the same tasks in relation to caring and help for the elderly A cross-functional team is c.g the operating team at a hospital, consisting of the surgeon, assisting doctors, nurses, anesthetist etc. The cross-functional team tends to contain the greatest potential for innovation and development". However, at the same time, there is a large potential for conflicts in the cross-functional team, presumably because different academic backgrounds increase the dissimilarities in approaches to a given problem. Structurally, a team typically consists of a team manager, who is not part of day-to-day operations and whose function is to compose and possibly change the team, assign tasks, help the team periodically. evaluate it and give feedback. The team manager typically carries the responsibility for 3-4 teams. "I studied English for 16 ENGLISH OUT THERE years but... ...I finally learned to speak it in just six lessons" Click to hear me talking Jane, Chinese architect before and after my unique course downloadOrganizational theory Focus on task performance and structure Furthermore, there will usually be a team coordinator who is part of the team and participates equally with the other members, while being in charge of the practical coordination of activities and information. notices for meetings etc. There are various ways of choosing the team coordinator, he may be chosen by the team manager, be elected internally in the team, or team members may take the job in turns. In some cases, the team manager and team coordinator is one person, who is part of the team. It may be difficult to make this structure successful as an active manager internally in the team will easily end up working against the very idea of team organizing Giving the team authority by virtue of delegated responsibility and decision-making winpetcut. Therefore, such a structure requires that thre manager is capable of balancing delegation and establishment of fixed limits and direction of work a balancing act that is of course not impossible. This structure is typically found in teams where the level of competence is so low in relation to cooperation, decision-making process etc. that it is necessary to have a strong. instructive manager within the team. The following models, which show typical team based organizations, are based on the typical structure. which includes a superior, external team manager and a participating, internal team coordinator. In order to show the complexity that may exist in different levels of team organization, all the models will be based on a hospital, beginning with classical team organization and then approaching the structure from different angles. Team manager (may in this case be a head nurse) Team with team Team with team Team with team coordinator coordinator .coordinator (section A with 10 beds) (section D with 16 beds) (section C with 16 beds) Figure 2.17: Classical team organization Here, each team may consist of 12 nurses who share the tasks and report to the head nurse as their immediate superior. In the cancer unit, we find an organization that to some extent is based on expert teams, e.g. groups of specialist doctors (lung cancer, breast cancer, skin cancer etc.), ambulatory nurses and those responsible for chemotherapy. In expert team organization, a cross-functional team containing representatives from the different occupational groups is often established to deal with tasks that exceed the limits of the individual team's range of competence. In our example, this could be particularly complicated patient cases involving several wards.Organizational theory Focus on task performance and structure Another significant consideration in connection with these two organizational forms is that both the team and the manager must change practice. If the manager continues to manage in 'the old-fashioned way. this will, in a systemic understanding, maintain the team in its original 'group practice. Therefore, the building of new understanding and practice in team management are decisive. The following questions will often be helpful for the manager: 1. What are my rights and obligations as manager in relation to the team? What must I do? What can I do? What can I not do? What remains unclear and needs to be examined further? 2. What are the team's rights and obligations in relation to our customers/users? In relation to me as manager and in relation to other teams in the organization? What must the team do? What can it do? What can it not do? What remains unclear? 2.7 Pitfalls in focus on task performance and structure 'Organizational focus on task performance and structure' aims at a motive force of formalization and intensity of purpose to reach rational utilization of the organization's resources. The starting point is that the employees' scope is limited by positions, rules and procedures; hence the name rationality. This e-book is made with SETASIGN SetaPDF PDF components for PHP developersOrganizational theory Focus on task performance and structure Another significant consideration in connection with these two organizational forms is that both the team and the manager must change practice. If the manager continues to manage in 'the old-fashioned way. this will, in a systemic understanding, maintain the team in its original 'group practice. Therefore, the building of new understanding and practice in team management are decisive. The following questions will often be helpful for the manager: 1. What are my rights and obligations as manager in relation to the team? What must I do? What can I do? What can I not do? What remains unclear and needs to be examined further? 2. What are the team's rights and obligations in relation to our customers/users? In relation to me as manager and in relation to other teams in the organization? What must the team do? What can it do? What can it not do? What remains unclear? 2.7 Pitfalls in focus on task performance and structure 'Organizational focus on task performance and structure' aims at a motive force of formalization and intensity of purpose to reach rational utilization of the organization's resources. The starting point is that the employees' scope is limited by positions, rules and procedures; hence the name rationality. This e-book is made with SETASIGN SetaPDF PDF components for PHP developers\f\f7 / 123 - 50% + Organizational theory Organizational theory in perspective 1 Organizational theory in perspective Since Mr. A.P. Moller founded this business, decency, integrity and trustworthiness have been in the heart of the company, and I venture to assert that in the A.P. Moller Group, there always has been and still is high morals and ethics. We have never had and still do not have written rules. And we are not planning on having any. Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller The above quotation from Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller expresses some of the reasons why the company has come to serve as a model for many when it comes to the ability to manage and organize a company. The company is based on a number of standards which indicate what it perceives as right and important: Focus on the company - in contrast to focus on the individual Consideration - in contrast to hasty decisions or exaggerated caution 100% rather than 99.9% as we can always improve Take small risks at the risk of failing - rather than risking everything Make usage of abilities for the benefit of the company - rather than keeping knowledge to yourself Create confidence in the company - in contrast to performing actions that create distrust Be visionary - rather than having a lazy attitude . Dress code - rather than jeans and sweaty hands. All managers in the company have attained technical qualifications through a kind of apprenticeship. which corresponds with Maersk Mc-Kinney Meller's own type of employment in the shipping company at the age of 19, and subsequent training in the group, including stationing supplemented with long-term education at an institution of higher education. Previous managers in A.P. Moller still use their experience in management and organization from the headquarters in their new jobs. Many managers state that Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller is visionary, awe- inspiring and perceptive and at the same time a straightforward manager who communicates directly and "kicks the ball" when employees are sluggish. tion....pdf Writing Assignm....docx a WOrganizational theory Organizational theory in perspective His 90th birthday did not put a full stop to his career. There were no signs that his active career would end then, and his work to improve and develop continues. There is room for improvements in the management and structure of many companies and organizations. Everybody talks about the need for innovation, but according to opinion formers, many companies have not succeeded in being innovative. Three frequent mistakes in managements and organizations are: 1. Management and organization are too self-satisfied 2. Management and organization do not master the process of change 3. Management and organization underestimate the significance of vision In a knowledge society, companies are challenged by technology leaps, slides in values and globalization. Heavy demands are placed on the management and the organization: Both radical, innovative thinking and disciplined action in response to challenges. Too much self-satisfaction can be a large barrier in taking up these challenges. Sources of self-satisfaction are e.g. unconcerned management. staff's ability to deny facts, organizational culture, lacking performance feedback from external sources, internal assessment systems, organizational structure, low performance standards, too many visible resources, and the absence of a large, visible crisis. These challenges place demands on future organizations. Self-satisfaction may be the greatest obstacle in taking the first step in the process of change. Furthermore, management is becoming more important and more difficult than earlier as organizations are becoming more important than production equipment. It is no longer enough to invest in new technology, and implement effective production processes. Many companies can do that. It is about who is the best, when it comes to mobilizing the organization's energy and individual talents and controlling the necessary challenges. tion....pdf Writing Assignm....docx a WOrganizational theory Organizational theory in perspective 1.1 Requirements of future organizations Future organizations must be capable of changing relative to a quickly changeable world. Future organizations are characterized by: Characteristics Requirements Perceived need for change The maintenance of this perception requires information systems which communicate results as feedback, eg. customer satisfaction and accounting figures. Open and honest dialogue about results and working methods. Cooperation at the top No person - regardless of talent - can manage the necessary changes alone. Management teams are used as they have a stronger basis for changes than one manager. Individuals, who have influenced the management earlier, but who spoil teamwork, are replaced by cooperative managers. Both leadership and management The traditional manager, who plans, budgets, organizes, staffs, controls and solves problems, is supplemented with a manager who can create and communicate visions. Proactive work to become future winners Sitting boxes for management which include both leadership and management Ability to implement changes Broadly based competence development in the staff group contributes to a thorough implementation of changes Excellent short-term results Delegation of management which provides short-term results indicating that the vision is on the right track Structure facilitates changes The organization is structured without unnecessary interdependence creating inflexible structures and power concentrations, which prevent changes from being implemented. Figure 1.1: Features characterizing future organizations 1.2 Levels and perspectives in organizational theory My experience in working with organizational analyses is that they tend to become too extensive It may be relevant to include relations to society and the influence on and from other organizations. And naturally. there are also relations between the organization's own teams and individuals. Thus, an organization may be viewed from different angles. In order to limit the organizational analysis. I recommend Scott's' three levels of analysis as a starting point: Social-psychological level - focus on the individual and interpersonal relations. Structural level - focus on the organization in general and its subdivisions into organizational entities containing departments, teams, etc. pdf Writing Assignm....docx a MLatest Headlines M Gmail YouTube Maps 10 / 123 - 50% + Organizational theory Organizational theory In perspective The diversity of isolated theories within organizational theory may be related to these levels of analysis. The earliest organizational studies were based on the social-psychological level, e.g. Mayo's Hawthorne studies'. On the basis of early studies by Max Weber, the structural level became widespread, e-g. Lawrence and Lorsch's Contingency Theory'. After that, organizational theories were supplemented with studies at macro level. Currently, I am extending Scott's analysis levels, giving special attention to organizations' learning, which is perceived as the critical success factor in the organization's adjustment to the surrounding environment. Today and in the future, any organization needs broadly based competence development in its staff group as it contributes to thorough implementation of changes. Conversely, production is limited away from the macro level. For a total presentation, see "Strategy in Successful Companies", chapter 3 as an alternative. In this context, organizational theories are considered with emphasis on the socio-psychological level, the structural level and on organizational learning. Each organizational theory has its primary perspective which Scott' subdivided into rational, natural and open perspectives. In this presentation, a distinction is made between these three perspectives through three primary areas of focus for a given organizational theory. Focus on performance of tasks Focus on motivation Focus on adjustment to the surrounding environment What if you could build your future and create the future? The innovation accelerator one generation's transformation is the next's status Quo. vices andreadtours: people may soon think it's strange cher devices ever had to be "plugged in." needs to be The S Alcatel Lucent A ganization....pdf Writing Assignm....docx a W 6Organizational theory Organizational theory in perspective 1.3 The connecting thread in organizational theory This book is structured according to these three areas of focus and subdivided according to the three analysis levels. It provides the reader with the following view of the organizational theories: Task performance and Motivation Adjustment to structure surroundings Social-psychological analysis level Scientific Management - Expectancy Theory - Vroom Taylor Administrative Theory Self-efficacy Fayol Management by Objective - Drucker Needs theories Motivational theories Qualifications and Personality 2 Factor Theory - Herzberg Rewards/reinforcement Theory - Skinner Pathfinder Theory Cultural theories - Schein, Martin and Albert & Whetten Structural analysis level Bureaucracy Model - Job Design Loose-coupled Weber organizations - Weick Administrative Theory - Job Characteristics - Hackman External Environment Fayol & Oldham Factors and Organizational Structures - Mintzberg Organizational learning Organizational Learning level March & Olsen The Learning Organization - Argyris & Senge .pdf Writing Assignm....docx a M12 / 123 50% + Organizational theory Organizational theory in perspective 1.4 Chronological outline of organizational theories Personally. I have often needed an outline of the chronological development in organizational theories. Not least because there are so many applicable theories which solve part of the organization's task, but there is no single theory which explains the entire area of analysis and development of organizations. I have not found it earlier, and therefore, I have made a chronological outline containing significant contributions to organiza-tional theory over the past 100 years. See figure 1.4. 1900 1911 Taylor - Scientific Management Weber - Bureaucracy Model 1922 1925 Fayol - Administrative Theory Mayo - Hawthorne Studies 1933 1954 Maslow - Hierarchy of Needs McGregor - Theory X Theory Y 1957 Tannenbaum-Schmidt 1957 Continuum of Leader Simon & March - Behavior Organizations 1958 1961 Burns & Stalker - Blake-Mouton- 1964 Management of Innovation Managerial Grid 1965 Woodward - Industriel Mcclelland - Achievement organisation Theory 1965 1966 Herzberg - Motivation- Hygiene Likert - Systems 1-4 1967 1967 Fiedler - Contingency Model Olsson - Management By Objectives 1968 1969 Hersey-Blanchard - Alderfer - Existence, Situational Leadership Relationship and Growth 1972 1974 House-Mitchell - Path-Goal Vroom - Expectancy Theory 1976 1980 Hackman & Oldham - Mintzberg - Organizational Jodesign Design 1981 Schein 1985 Organizational Culture Senge - The Learning Organization 1990 1991 Toyota - Lean Martin - Culture In Organizations 1992 1995 Weick - Sensemaking in Organizations Whetter-Cameron Empowerment 1995 1997 Kotter - Leading Fairholm - Values-Based Change Leadership 1098 Scott - Rational, Natural 1998 and Open Systems Knowledge Society - Kolind 2001 on....pdf Writing Assignm....docx a W M13 / 123 - 50% 2 Focus on task performance and structure The greatest contributions to organizational theory have been collected and called "focus on task performance and structure". In terms of time, these contributions were made in connection with the build-up of the industrial society and the great industrial groups, which created a need for theories about the management of many people gathered around industrial tasks. The large industrial groups were characterized by being instrumental collectives designed to achieve specific objectives with a strongly formalized culture. The development resulted in organizational theories with normative rules for structuring of work, where the organizations were instrumental, or machines were constructed for the purpose of reaching a determined objective. In the following, we will review four different theoretical contributions, which are central to the understanding of organizations that focus on task performance and structure. In the rational perspective. we also call these contributions theoretical schools: Taylor - Scientific Management Fayol - Administrative Theory Weber - Bureaucracy and Organizational Structure Simon - Administrative Behavior Although the schools differ, they share the perception that a formalized structure is prescribed behavior for the staff's common behavior. This rational approach is based on: Transparency to enable consequences of organizational choices to be assessed Adjustability for the attainment of maximum production Need for the possibility of replacing parts of the organization and avoid key staff Need to reduce infighting in order to maintain achieved positions Top-down management and control Professional and rational behavior without disruptive emotional relationships tion....pdf Writing Assignm....docx a W 614 / 123 50% + 2.1 Scientific Management - F.W. Taylor Scientific Management originated in the beginning of the 20th century, and Frederick W. Taylor was the primary contributor. Scientific Management was based on an idea of systematization where attempts were made to enhance the efficiency of procedures to best effect via scientific analyses and experiments. Taylor believed that it was possible to prescribe the processes that resulted in maximum output with a minimum input of energy and resources. Thus, Taylor's starting point was the individual work process, which had considerable consequences throughout the system. The structure had to be adapted to the focus that was put on work processes, and in doing so; the manager lost his governing role as he was subjected to scientifically calculated solutions. Therefore, it was necessary to establish a staff of specialists who were capable of determining the optimum work processes. Since the employee and his handling of work processes was the starting point, Taylor's approach is categorized as a bottom up approach. Scientific Management was quickly adopted by large mass-producing industrial companies. Henry Ford is the most outstanding example of what is characterized as the 'industrial revolution' From studies of time and carefully determined educational skills, cars were now constructed by mass production in fixed, machine-like procedures, which created a new ism - Fordism. Cynthia | AXA Graduate AXA Global Graduate Program Find out more and apply redefining / standards AYA ation....pdf Writing Assignm....docx a W M15 / 123 - 50% + Organizational theory Focus on task performance and structure Hence, Scientific Management has had a decisive and long impact on the industrial practice and on the theoretical ideas of organizations in general. Later on, the theory was criticized by both employees and managers as scientific time studies disregarded their own common sense and judgment. As a result of this resistance and the spread of other views of humanity, Scientific Management is no longer prevalent as a managerial ideology. However, it still functions as a guideline for technical procedures, not only in the industrial sector, but also in the service sector. 2.2 Administrative Theory - H. Fayol Around the same time as Taylor, Henri Fayol' developed another approach within the rational perspective, which inverts the focus of Scientific Management. Now, administrative processes rather than technical processes were rationalized. The administrative principles in the form of the management's hierarchical pyramid structure were to function as the basis of the part of the organization that involved activities, Le. a top down approach. Although Fayol's thoughts appeared at the beginning of this century, they were not widespread outside France until 1949 when his studies were translated. Several different theoretical contributions to this administrative approach are concerned with two overall principles, viz. coordination and specialization - which have more specific underlying demands: Coordination: Hierarchical pyramid All employees are accountable to one superior only. A superior can only have the number of subordinates which he or she can manage (limited span of control") Routine work must be performed by subordinates so that the superior can attend to special tasks. Specialization: Distribution of activities in working groups Formation of homogeneous groups according to. Purpose (Marketing or development department) Process (Typing, punching out beer bottle caps) Customer (Large, medium and small customers) Geography (Different service according to country or region) Figure 2.1: Coordination and specialization Thus, coordination is based on a hierarchical pyramid structure in which the members of the organization are linked to each other, and there must be clarity in the administrative structure. Specialization, on the other hand, is concerned with ways of grouping the organization's activities most effectively in separate entities or departments. This is referred to as the principle of departmentalization where homogeneous or related activities are grouped in one entity. As it appears from both coordination and specialization, they express a high degree of formalization, which is one of the principal themes of the rational perspective. Fayol and others were pioneers in the creation of administrative theory, and therefore, they were later subjected to severe criticism for over-simplifying administrative conditions. The main critic was Herbert on....pdf Writing Assignm....docx a W M 615 / 123 - 50% + Organizational theory Focus on task performance and structure Hence, Scientific Management has had a decisive and long impact on the industrial practice and on the theoretical ideas of organizations in general. Later on, the theory was criticized by both employees and managers as scientific time studies disregarded their own common sense and judgment. As a result of this resistance and the spread of other views of humanity, Scientific Management is no longer prevalent as a managerial ideology. However, it still functions as a guideline for technical procedures, not only in the industrial sector, but also in the service sector. 2.2 Administrative Theory - H. Fayol Around the same time as Taylor, Henri Fayol' developed another approach within the rational perspective, which inverts the focus of Scientific Management. Now, administrative processes rather than technical processes were rationalized. The administrative principles in the form of the management's hierarchical pyramid structure were to function as the basis of the part of the organization that involved activities, Le. a top down approach. Although Fayol's thoughts appeared at the beginning of this century, they were not widespread outside France until 1949 when his studies were translated. Several different theoretical contributions to this administrative approach are concerned with two overall principles, viz. coordination and specialization - which have more specific underlying demands: Coordination: Hierarchical pyramid All employees are accountable to one superior only. A superior can only have the number of subordinates which he or she can manage (limited span of control") Routine work must be performed by subordinates so that the superior can attend to special tasks. Specialization: Distribution of activities in working groups Formation of homogeneous groups according to. Purpose (Marketing or development department) Process (Typing, punching out beer bottle caps) Customer (Large, medium and small customers) Geography (Different service according to country or region) Figure 2.1: Coordination and specialization Thus, coordination is based on a hierarchical pyramid structure in which the members of the organization are linked to each other, and there must be clarity in the administrative structure. Specialization, on the other hand, is concerned with ways of grouping the organization's activities most effectively in separate entities or departments. This is referred to as the principle of departmentalization where homogeneous or related activities are grouped in one entity. As it appears from both coordination and specialization, they express a high degree of formalization, which is one of the principal themes of the rational perspective. Fayol and others were pioneers in the creation of administrative theory, and therefore, they were later subjected to severe criticism for over-simplifying administrative conditions. The main critic was Herbert on....pdf Writing Assignm....docx a W M 616 / 123 - 50% + H Organizational theory Focus on task performance and structure 2.3 Bureaucracy Model - M. Weber Max Weber is described as the father of sociology, and he has made great efforts to elucidate conditions in Western civilization. He developed an understanding of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy is fundamental as it represents a basic pattern which exists in many variants. Weber is different from Taylor and Payol in that he has a broader approach to organizations as he includes the social and historical perspective. He believes that the understanding of organizations and their structure can be found in the historical context, and he develops a normative ideal for bureaucracy, which is reflected in his view of e.g. the public employee. According to Weber, the public employee must act as if the superior's interests were his own and thus stay in his bureaucratically assigned role. Bureaucracy must consist of neutral professional public employees so that the organizational hierarchy can function as smoothly and effectively as possible. Weber established a number of criteria for bureaucracy: According to Weber, bureaucracy is: A specific administrative structure, which is based on a legal and rule-oriented authority (Scott, 1998: 48) -..and has the following characteristics: Established distribution of work between the members of the organization An administrative hierarchy A rule-oriented system, which describes the performance of the work Separation of personal possessions and rights for the office Selection of staff according to technical qualifications Employment involves a career Figure 2.2: Weber's ideal bureaucracy The Wake the only emission we want to leave behind Low-space Engines Medium spend Engines Packages rae Serv dodign of eco friendly mane acwas and propatuon scantians is crucial for