Module 2 - Home QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS Modular Learning Outcomes Upon successful completion of this module, the student will be able to satisfy the following outcomes: o o o o o Case Demonstrate that you can recognize the unique features of qualitative research within the existing body of research literature. Distinguish and discuss the differences among the qualitative research methods covered in this module. SLP Examine the strengths and possible shortcomings of a study that used mixed methods. Discussion Compare and contrast positivism, post-positivism, and interpretivism and determine how these paradigms impact research. Discuss the four common forms of qualitative research methods and explain how these may be based on any of the three paradigms of research. Module Overview During Module 1, the concept of mixed methods was introduced and qualitative research was defined and compared to quantitative research. The characteristics of qualitative research were also described, as well as two disciplinary perspectives on qualitative research phenomenological and critical social theory research. Module 2 will continue to explore the following four common research methods that are used in qualitative research, and the sample populations targeted by such qualitative strategies: Ethnography Grounded Theory Case Study Action research Ethnographic Studies Ethnographic research is a method used for investigating cultures. It involves collecting and describing data which are intended to aid in the development of a theory. This type of research method is also called ethnomethodology or "methodology of the people." An example might be the study of a particular culture and their understanding of the role of a particular disease in their culture. Among the range of tools at the ethnographer's disposal is the interview. The ethnographic interview is an in-depth interview of an individual in his or her natural setting. The subject of interest is interviewed as s/he goes about his/her daily life; in doing so, the researcher gains insight into the lived experience of the individual. Such insight can lead to better understanding of what the subject does on a day-to-day basis and how these things influence, for example, his/her health behaviors (e.g., why s/he opts to eat foods high in saturated fat in spite of evidence of the detrimental effects of doing so). An example of an urban ethnography can be found at: An Urban Ethnography of Latino Street Gangs . Ethnographic Studies, Chapter 4, Retrieved February 2011. fromhttp://eecs.wsu.edu/~veupl/proj/dis/Ch4.pdf Grounded Theory Research Grounded theory is inductive research, that is, based on or \"grounded\" in the observations or data from which it was developed. Therefore, grounded theory research uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation, and surveys. The outcome of grounded theory research is the development of a theory that explains the study phenomenon. An example of grounded theory research can be found at: A Grounded Theory Study of the Relationship between Email and Burnout The Case Study Case studies in education are likely to be qualitative. A researcher will use a case-study design to get an in-depth understanding of the situation and the meaning for those involved. The interest is in the process rather than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than confirmation. Insights that a researcher gets from case studies can directly influence policy, practice, and future research. Case Studies. What are case studies? https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/designteach/design/instructionalstrat egies/casestudies.html Action Research Rory O'Brien (1998) gives the following description of action research on his website: "Action research...aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to further the goals of social science simultaneously. Thus, there is a dual commitment in action research to study a system and concurrently to collaborate with members of the system in changing it in what is together regarded as a desirable direction. Accomplishing this twin goal requires the active collaboration of researcher and client, and thus it stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of the research process." An example of action research can be found at: Effect of Technology on Enthusiasm for Learning Science . Semi-Structured Interviews Semi-structured interviews (SSIs) afford the researcher the flexibility of the unstructured interviewer and the restraint of the structured interview. SSIs are structured in that they are conducted using a list of open-ended questions pertaining to a topic of interest; these questions are often followed by probes that allow the researcher to obtain a more in-depth understanding of the subject matter. However, SSIs are unstructured in that they allow for greater exploration of a topic; they are not restricted by the data collection instrument as the use of open-ended questions permits the respondent to elaborate in great detail or to raise issues that may have been overlooked by the researcher in developing the interview schedule. During the SSI, the interviewer takes notes of the subject's responses and may or may use a tape recorder, depending upon the willingness of the subject to be recorded and whether concerns exist with regard to the influence of the very act of tape recording upon data quality. The semi-structured interview schedule (SSIS) is essentially a guide used by the interviewer during the interview, which typically lasts a minimum of an hour. The SSIS consists of a list of open-ended questions, each followed, if necessary, by a probe An example of conducting semi-structured interviews can be found at: Conducting Semi-Structured Interviews. Sample Populations: Qualitative Sampling Strategies Convenience sample This is the least rigorous technique, involving the selection of the most accessible subjects. It is the least costly to the researcher, in terms of time, effort, and money, but may result in poor quality data and lacks intellectual credibility. There is an element of convenience sampling in many qualitative studies, but a more thoughtful approach to selection of a sample is usually justified. Judgment sample Also known as purposeful sample, this is the most common sampling technique. The researcher actively selects the most productive sample to answer the research question. This can involve developing a framework of the variables that might influence an individual's contribution and will be based on the researcher's practical knowledge of the research area, the available literature, and evidence from the study itself. This is a more intellectual strategy than the simple demographic stratification of epidemiological studies, though age, gender, and social class might be important variables. If the subjects are known to the researcher, they may be stratified according to known public attitudes or beliefs. It may be advantageous to study a broad range of subjects (maximum variation sample), outliers (deviant sample), subjects who have specific experiences (critical case sample) or subjects with special expertise (key informant sample). Subjects may be able to recommend useful potential candidates for study (snowball sample). During interpretation of the data it is important to consider subjects who support emerging explanations and, perhaps more importantly, subjects who disagree (confirming and disconfirming samples). Theoretical sample The iterative process of qualitative study design means that samples are usually theory-driven to a greater or lesser extent. Theoretical sampling necessitates building interpretative theories from the emerging data and selecting a new sample to examine and elaborate on this theory. It is the principal strategy for the grounded theoretical approach, but will be used in some form in most qualitative investigations necessitating interpretation. 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