N A S TIO I C VE A N T I IZ O E T N R C A TI O PE G CA E S R NI H R T E O U P OR M 2 F OM E R T P C A L C H A L LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to answer several questions about the Functional approach, the Meaning-Centered approach, and Emerging Perspectives. THE FUNCTIONAL APPROACH 1. What are different types of organizational messages? 2. How do organizing, relationship, and change messages differ? 3. How can communication networks be described? 4. How do different communications channels affect messages? 5. What is communication load? 6. What is distortion in organizational communication? LEARNING OBJECTIVES THE MEANING-CENTERED APPROACH 1. How is \"reality\" generated through human interaction? 2. Why are communicating and organizing almost synonymous processes? 3. How does communication contribute to decision making? 4. What is meant by sensemaking? 5. What are influence processes in organizations? 6. What are communication rules? 7. What is the difference between treating culture as something an organization has versus something an organization is? 8. What is meant by communication climate? LEARNING OBJECTIVES EMERGING PERSPECTIVES 1. What is meant by communication as constitutive processes? 2. What are the issues for organizational communication when adopting a postmodern viewpoint? 3. What is the emphasis of critical organizational communication theory? 4. What is feminist organizational communication theory? 5. How do the values evidenced in Emerging Perspectives differ from the Functional and Meaning-Centered approaches? 6. What is the common ground among the three perspectives? What are the most important differences? 1. FUNCTIONAL APPROACH Way of understanding organizational communication by describing what messages do and how they move through organizations. This perspective describes communication as a complex organizational process that serves organizing, relationship, and change functions: what messages do. The way messages move through organizations is described by examining communication networks, channels, message directions, communication load, and distortion. The Functional approach suggests that communication transmits rules, regulations, and information throughout the organization. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: COMPONENT PARTS Organizational communication system: Number of related units and processes that operate together within the organization and with its environment to create and shape organizational events. Information processing is the primary function of the communication system. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: COMPONENT PARTS (CONTINUED)Information in the external environment that Communication inputs: may influence the decision making of the organization. communication inputs, is any information that can potentially influence the decision making of the suprasystem (organization). It is crucial for an organization to have accurate and timely information inputs to adapt and change. Communication throughput: Transforming and changing of input information for internal organizational use and the generation and transmission of internal information throughout the organization. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: COMPONENT PARTS Communication output: Messages to the external environment from within the organization. Open systems: Organizations that continually take in new information, transform that information, and give information back to the environment. Closed systems: Organizations that lack input communication, making it difficult to make good decisions and stay current with the needs of the environment. Equifinality: Potential for the use of a variety of approaches to reach system goals. Message functions: What communication does or how it contributes to the overall functioning of the organization. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: COMPONENT PARTS Organizing functions: Messages that establish the rules and regulations of a particular environment. Relationship functions: Communication that helps individuals define their roles and assess the compatibility of individual and organizational goals Change functions: Messages that help organizations adapt what they do and how they do it; viewed as essential to an open system. Message structure; Movement of organizing, relationship, and change messages throughout the organization and between the organization and its external environment. Networks: Formal and informal patterns of communication that link organizational members together. CHANNELS Channels: Means for the transmission of messages. Common means are face-toface interaction, group meetings, memos, letters, computer-mediated exchanges, web sites, presentations, and teleconferencing. Message Direction: Description of the movement of messages in organizations based on authority or position levels of message senders and receivers; typically described as downward, upward, and horizontal communication. Communication Load: Number of messages moving through the communication system; commonly referred to as load, overload, and under-load. Message Distortion: Anything that contributes to alterations in meaning as messages move through the organization. 2. MEANING-CENTERED APPROACH Way of understanding organizational communication by discovering how organizational reality is generated through human interaction. The approach describes organizational communication as the process for generating shared realities that become organizing, decision making, sense-making, influence, and culture. As such, message purposes (functions) and message movement (structure) are secondary to understanding communication as the construction of shared realities (human interaction). Specifically, the Meaning-Centered approach describes organizational communication as the process for generating shared realities that become organizing, decision making, sense making, influence, and culture. Organizing: Bringing order out of chaos with organizations as the products of the organizing process; described as almost synonymous with the communication process. Decision making: Process of choosing from among numerous alternatives; the part of the organizing process necessary for directing behaviors and resources toward organizational goals. Influence: Organizational and individual attempts to persuade; frequently seen in organizational identification, socialization, communication rules, and power. Identity: Relatively stable characteristics, including core beliefs, values, attitudes, preferences, decisional premises, and more that make up the self. Identification: Dynamic social process by which identities are constructed; includes perceptions of a sense of belonging. Usually associated with the belief that individual and organizational goals are compatible. SOCIALIZATIONS Socialization; Active organizational attempts to help members learn appropriate behaviors, norms, and values. Anticipatory socialization: Pre-entry information about the organization and the anticipated work role. Encounter socialization: Early organizational experiences reducing uncertainty about all aspects of organizational life. Metamorphosis socialization: Initial mastery of basic skills and information and adjustments to organizational life. Communication rules: General prescriptions about appropriate communication behaviors in particular settings. Thematic rules are general prescriptions of behavior reflecting the values and beliefs of the organization, whereas tactical rules prescribe specific behaviors as related to more general themes. STRUCTURATION Production and reproduction of social systems via the application of generative rules and resources in interaction. POWER Attempts to influence another person's behavior to produce desired outcomes. The process occurs through communication and is related to resources, dependencies, and alternatives. CULTURE Unique sense of the place that organizations generate through ways of doing and ways of communicating about the organization; reflects the shared realities and shared practices in the organization and how they create and shape organizational events Communication climate Reaction to the organization's culture; consists of collective beliefs, expectations, and values regarding communication that are generated as organizational members continually evaluate their interactions with others. EMERGING PERSPECTIVES Constitutive process: Communication seen as a process of meaning development and social production of perceptions, identities, social structures, and affective responses Postmodernism: Theoretical perspectives representing an alienation from the past, skepticism about authority structures, ambiguity of meanings, and mass culture. Deconstruction: Refers to the examination of taken-for-granted assumptions, the examination of the myths we use to explain how things are the way they are, and the uncovering of the interests involved in socially constructed meanings. Critical theory; Focuses attention on studies of power and abuses of power through communication and organization. Hegemony: Process of control based on a dominant group leading others to believe that their subordination is the norm. FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION Feminist theory Focuses on the marginalization and domination of women in the workplace and the valuing of women's voices in all organizational processes THANK YOU COMMUNICATION IMPLICATIONS OF MAJOR ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES Chapter 3 Learning outcomes KNOWLEDGE Describing Scientific Management theories for organizations Describing Human Behavior theories for organizations Describing Integrated Perspectives theories for organizations Describing Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist theories for organizations Learning outcomes SENSITIVITY Awareness of communication implications of Scientific Management theories Awareness of communication implications of Human Behavior theories Awareness of communication implications of Integrated Perspectives theories Awareness of communication implications of Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives Learning outcomes SKILLS Applying theory to familiar organizations Practicing analysis capabilities VALUES Understanding Scientific Management, Human Behavior, Integrated Perspectives, and Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives in contemporary organizations Clarifying the importance of values in organizations Introduction Human Behavior theorists are concerned about the influence of individuals in organizations, what motivates workers, and how motivation affects the organization. These theorists believe organizational design and structure reflect basic assumptions about human behavior. They describe organizational relationships and people as resources. Human Behavior approaches are frequently discussed as human relation and human resource theories. This chapter is designed to contribute to knowledge competencies by describing major organizational theories representing Scientific Management, Human Behavior, Integrated, and Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives. Sensitivity: competencies are fostered by examining communication implications found in theory. Analysis skills are developed by combining knowledge and sensitivity competencies for application to familiar organizations and case studies. Finally, knowledge, sensitivity, and skill competencies influence values through evaluation of Scientific Management, Human Behavior, Integrated, and Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives theories in contemporary organizations and by examining the importance of values for successful organizations. Scientific Management Perspective Theoretical approach to organizations that emphasizes organizational design, worker training for efficiency, chains of command, and division of labor. The perspective rests on the assumption that work and organizations can be rationally or \"scientifically\" designed and developed. Major theories of Scientific Management: Principles of Scientific Management: Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) The four essential elements he viewed as the foundation of scientific management: (1) careful selection of workers, (2) inducing and training the worker by the scientific method, (3) equal division of work between management and workers, and (4) discovering the scientific method for tasks and jobs. Time and motion: Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) Technique for determining the efficiency of production through work observation and time measurements; used to develop work standards that can be measured for efficiency Principles of Management: Henri Fayol (1841-1925) In General and Industrial Management (1949), Fayol proposed fourteen principles of administration or management that he viewed as essential for effective organization: 1. Division of work. Fayol proposed a division of labor based on task specialization, with individuals having specific and well-defined assignments. 2. Authority. Fayol placed responsibility for the exercise of authority with management. He also emphasized a difference between authority as a result of job title versus what he called \"personal\" authority, authority based on intelligence, experience, moral worth, ability to lead, and past service. Although he did not describe it as such, Fayol was recognizing the importance of what is now called credibility in leadership. 3.Discipline. Discipline is present when the behavior desired by management is exhibited by the workforce. Fayol held management responsible for discipline, although he made no mention of a specific implementation process. 4. Unity of command. Fayol's principle of unity of command carried specific recommendations for communication. He contended that orders should come from only one superior and that a bypass of the chain of command would be a source of organizational problems. He believed messages should move from supervisors to subordinates as prescribed by the formal organization chart. 5. Unity of direction. Unity of direction was achieved by sound structuring of the organization. Unity of direction represented the formal organizational structure, whereas unity of command referred to people functioning within the structure. 6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. Individual interests were to be secondary to the overall good of the group or the organization, according to Fayol. 7. Remuneration. Fayol called for a fair price for services rendered. He believed that pay scales should be just and should motivate workers, but should not overcompensate. 8. Centralization. In his principle of centralization, Fayol recognized the need for flexibility in management principles. He advised: \"Centralization is not a system of management good or bad of itself. . . . The question of centralization or decentralization is a simple question of proportion.\" 9. Scalar chain. In his discussion of the scalar chain, Fayol directly referred to messages moving vertically and horizontally throughout the organization. In fact, his discussion of the scalar chain is the only known treatment of horizontal communication found in organizational literature until the writings of Chester Barnard in 1938. Fayol defined the scalar chain as \"the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest ranks. The line of authority is the route followed via every link in the chainby all communications which start from or go to the ultimate authority.\" Fayol described the chain as carrying messages in vertical directions. 10. Order. Fayol contended that both material and social order should be interpreted so that everything and everybody had a specific place and responsibility. As a principle of administration, the concept of order was to be put into effect through an organization's structure. 11. Equity. Fayol valued what he called equity, or a combination of kindliness and justice toward all. He viewed equity as necessary to encourage workers to carry out duties with devotion and loyalty. Equityis a theory that attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Stability of tenure of personnel. Fayol recognized the cost to organizations of training workers and the amount of time it took for a person to become competent in a given position. Thus, he believed that a workforce that was relatively stable across time was in the best interests of the organization. 13. Initiative. Fayol saw initiative, as a principle of administration, as the ability to think through and execute plans. He considered the manager who permitted the exercise of initiative within a work group to be superior to the one who could not. 14. Esprit de corps: Esprit de corps refers to the morale of a group. It is a sense of unity and of common interests and responsibilities, as developed among a group of persons closely associated in a task, cause, enterprise, etc. Fayol's concept of esprit de corps was based on his belief that the strongest organization exhibited union of purpose. Fayol suggested that esprit de corps could be achieved by implementing his principle of unity of command. In advising managers about establishing esprit de corps, he warned against dividing and ruling and the abuse of written communication. In addition to his fourteen principles of administration, Fayol identified five basic activities of management. Planning: the development of operational strategies for the organization and the forecasting of future needs. Organizing: the use of people and materials to implement the organizational plan or goals. Commanding: the management function of obtaining maximum or optimum return for the organization from human and material resources. coordinating: the function of integrating the efforts of all organizational members. Controlling: management requirement to establish how closely to its plan the organization was operating. Fayol's bridge Horizontal communication between peers. Principles of Bureaucracy: Max Weber (1864-1920) Weber (1947) identified three types of authority: - charismatic, - traditional, and - bureaucratic. Charismatic authority is based on the specific characteristics of the person exerting authority. Personal attributes of the individual inspire others to follow. This authority is nonstructural (does not go with specific jobs) and usually nontransferable from person to person. In other words, charismatic authority is individually based, and when the charismatic leader leaves the organization, the authority or ability to influence leaves with him or her. Weber believed charismatic authority contributed to unstable organizations and disorderly transition of power from one person to another Traditional authority also known as Legal authority, also known as legal-rational authority, is where an individual or institution exerts power by virtue of the legal office that they hold. It is the authority that demands obedience to the office rather than the office holder Bureaucracy Organizations based on formalized rules, regulations, and procedures, which make authority rational as opposed to charismatic or traditional. HUMAN BEHAVIOR SCHOOL Human Behavior perspective: Theories of organizations that emphasize the interactions of individuals, their motivations, and their influence on organizational events. Major Human Behavior Theories Principles of Coordination: Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933) Focused on: proclaiming that productive organizations must be concerned with the desires and motivations of individuals and groups. characterizing conflict as potentially constructive, and described collective responsibility and integration as supportive of business excellence. The Hawthorne Effect: Elton Mayo (1880- 1949) Hawthorne effect Group norms that influence productivity apart from the physical production environment. The Hawthorne studies became the first organized attempts to understand the individual worker as key to the overall production process. Theory X-Theory Y McGregor's description of management assumptions about workers. Theory X characterizes assumptions underlying Scientific Management theory, and Theory Y is associated with assumptions common to Human Behavior perspectives. Theory X managers assume that workers dislike work and will avoid responsible labor. Theory Y managers believe that workers can be selfdirected and self-controlled. Participative Management: Rensis Likert (1903-1981) Likert's theory of employee centered management based on effectively functioning groups linked together structurally throughout the organization. INTEGRATED PERSPECTIVES VIEWPOINTS Integrated Perspectives: Theories that attempt to explain how people, technologies, and environments integrate to influence goal directed behavior. Integrated Perspective Theories: Process & Environmental Approaches Process and environmental approaches to organizational theory attempt to describe how complex processes such as decision making influence the internal operation of organizations and are influenced by external environments. Decision-making approach: Herbert Simon (1916-2001) Simon's concept that organizational behavior is a complex network of decisions, with decision-making processes influencing the behavior of the entire organization. Bounded rationality (Herbert Simon) Assumption that people intend to be rational, but with limited information-processing capacity, human decision making is based on selective perception and therefore exhibits \"limited\" rationality. Sociotechnical integration Herbert Simon Theoretical attempt to balance human socialpsychological needs with organizational goals; An assumption that organizational production is optimized through optimizing social and technical systems. Contingency Theory: Joan Woodward (1916) Paul Lawrence , and Jay Lorsch (1932) Approach that rejects the \"one best way\" to organize in favor of the view that no specific set of prescriptions is appropriate for all organizations. As such, organizations must adapt to changing circumstances and the needs of individuals and the environment in which the organization operates. The Systems Approach: Daniel Katz & Robert Kahn Systems theory: Describes organizations as made up of subsystems that take in materials and human resources, process materials and resources, and yield a finished product to the larger environment. The New Systems Approaches: Flux, Transformation, Quantum, Physics, Self-Organizing Systems & Chaos Theory: Gareth Morgan & Margaret Wheatley Traditional approaches to organization theory have been dominated by the idea that change originates in the environment. . . . The organization is typically viewed as an open system in constant interaction with its context, transforming inputs into outputs as a means of creating the conditions necessary for survival. Changes in the environment are viewed as presenting challenges to which the organization must respond. Autopoiesis: Process describing each element in a system simultaneously combining the maintenance of itself with the maintenance of the other elements of the system. Dissipative structures: Descriptions of structures when a loss of energy and form contributes to disequilibrium, which in turn contributes to growth and new structures and forms. Self-organizing or self-renewing systems: Processes occurring when disturbances amplify stimulating reconfigurations to deal with new information. Chaos theory: Description of systems disturbed from stable states to states of unpredictability. Learning Organizations: Peter Senge Learning organizations Organizations gaining knowledge from continuous processes of information exchange between the organization and its environments. SENGE'S FIVE DISCIPLINES ARE: 1. System thinking: the ability to think about connections and patterns and to view systems as wholes, not individual parts of the patterns. 2. Personal mastery: developing special levels of proficiency. Personal mastery is the discipline of continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision, of focusing our energies, of developing patience, and of seeing reality objectively. As such, it is an essential cornerstone of the learning organization, the learning organization's spiritual foundation. An organization's commitment to and capacity for learning can be no greater than that of its members. The roots of this discipline lie in both Eastern and Western spiritual traditions and in secular traditions as well. 3. Mental models: deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations, or even pictures or images that influence how we understand the world and how we take action. 4. Building shared vision: the capacity to hold a shared picture of the future we seek to create. When there is a genuine vision, people excel and learn, not because they are told to but because they want to. 5. Team learning: learning that starts with dialogue, the capacity of members of a team to suspend assumptions and enter into genuine \"thinking together.\" The discipline of dialogue also involves learning how to recognize the patterns of interaction in teams that undermine learning. Integrated Perspectives Theories: Cultural Approaches Cultural approaches Theories that describe how organizational members collectively interpret the organizational world around them to define the importance of organizational happenings. Approaches to theory that explain organizational behavior in terms of the influence of cultures that exist both internally and externally to the organization. Elements of Culture: Terrence Deal & and Allen Kennedy Terrence Deal and Allen Kennedy, in their book Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life (1982), identify five basic elements of organizational culture: business environment, values, heroes, rites and rituals, and the cultural network. Theory Z Ouchi's theory derived from comparisons between Japanese and American organizations. Theory Z organizations retain individual achievement and advancement as a model but provide a continuing sense of organizational community not typical of many U.S. organizations. In Search of Excellence: Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. A bias for action. Excellent companies made decisions. They were analytical but not paralyzed by too much information. When they had a problem, they took action. Close to the customer. Service, reliability, innovative products, and continual concern for customer needs were fundamentals for the excellent companies. Productivity through people. Workers at all organizational levels were the source of quality and the source of productivity. Excellent companies fought against a we/they management/labor attitude Hands-on, value-driven. The basic philosophy and values of the organization contributed more to achievement than did any specific technology or material resource. Values were seen to influence behavior and were considered the core of excellence. Stick to the knitting. Excellent companies stayed in the businesses they knew. They did not diversify beyond what they understood in terms of either technology and service or customers. They grew by doing what they did extremely well. Simple form, lean staff. None of the excellent companies was run with complicated organizational structures. In fact, many of the top corporate staffs were running multi-billiondollar organizations with fewer than a hundred people. Simultaneous loose-tight properties. These companies were both centralized and decentralized. Autonomy and entrepreneurship were encouraged at all levels within the organizations. Decision making was often decentralized, yet core values were very centralized and rigidly supported. Organizational Culture Formation: Edgar Schein Schein provides a model of culture with three distinct levels: (1) artifacts and creations, (2) values, and (3) basic assumptions. POSTMODERN, CRITICAL, AND FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES Postmodern and Critical Perspectives Theories that focus on power and domination and on challenges to hierarchy, bureaucracy, and management control. Feminist Perspectives Theories that critique the gendered assumptions of modern organizations and call for the recognition and valuing of multiple voices and perspectives Liberal feminist theory provides evidence of inequities, particularly economic inequities, using a symbol (statistics) that carries strong social and academic credibility. Liberal Feminist theory initially countered the claims that feminism has gone too far and currently counters the thesis that \"more women will make it better.\" ssful Radical-cultural feminism portrays possibilities and visions of an alternative world outside of patriarchy, offers \"consciousness raising\" as a unique form of organizational research and practice, documents alternative practices and alternative organizations, and provides specific examples of successful non-bureaucratical organizations. Marxist feminist theory is a reaction to and critique of capitalism. The class struggle between labor and capital is the central analysis of this perspective. Feminist perspectives identify \"gender\" as similar to \"class,\" a social category, characterized by relations of domination and oppression. Socialist feminism/gendering of organizations and organizing incorporates insights from Marxist, radical, and psychoanalytic feminism and focuses on gender relations and sex- gender systems. COMMUNICATION IMPLICATIONS OF POSTMODERN, CRITICAL & FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES The Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist approaches discussed focus on the centrality of organizational communication for understanding organizational relationships and the construction of broader social relationships. Organizing, relationship, and change messages are acknowledged in Postmodern and Critical Perspectives; however, message functions are examined relative to power relationships, abuses of power, and the capacity of all messages to incorporate multiple meanings and ambiguity. Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives stress multiple meanings or interpretations and reject notions of broadly shared organizational realties. Communication is viewed as literally constituting the organization and the process by which power is understood, including dominant voices marginalizing women and others. Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives propose a value of increased participation and democracy among workers, with an emphasis on the value of all organizational voices. POSTMODERN, CRITICAL & FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES IN CONTEMPORARY ORGANIZATIONS The delayering of organizationsreduced numbers of hierarchical levels and managersis evident in numerous organizations, with self-managing and high performance teams replacing traditional notions of supervision. Postmodern and Critical Perspectives describe these changes in terms of power shifts, interdependence, and increased needs for flexibility and adaptation as contrasted with task specialization and shared meanings. Organizations of today and tomorrow are populated with increasingly diverse workers. Customers and markets are both diverse and specialized. Adaptation, flexibility, and change are more common than unusual, and organizations regularly examine new approaches requiring increased and changing skills from the workforce. Hierarchy is challenged, ambiguity is increased, and shared practices are required among those with fewer and fewer of the same messages or interpretations. Feminist issues affecting women and minorities struggle to come to the forefront of organizational concerns. Internationalization, global markets, and the changing workforce all evidence postmodern and critical challenges in organizational life. Organizational Communication: Values and Ethical Communication Behaviors Chapter 4 What is a value system? A coherent set of values adopted and/or evolved by a person, organizaton, or society as a standard to guide its behavior in preferences in all situatons. A coherent set of values adopted and/or evolved by a person, organizaton, or society as a standard to guide its behavior in preferences in all situatons. What Is an Organizational Value Statement? Every organizaton has a set of values, whether or not they are written down. The values guide the perspectve of the organizaton as well as its actons. Writng down a set of commonly-held values can help an organizaton define its culture and beliefs. When members of the organizaton subscribe to a common set of values, the organizaton appears united when it deals with various issues. Core Values Building your company's vision (Collins & Porras, 1996) Companies that enjoy enduring success have core values and a core purpose that remain fixed while their business strategies and practces endlessly adapt to a changing world. Core Values Core values : A small set of tmeless guiding principles Only a few values can be truly core To identfy the core values, determine the values that are central and passionately held Values must stand the test of tme, they do not change with the market, company's change markets to remain true to core values. Core Values Core Purpose is the organizaton's reason for being Reflects people's idealistc motvaton for doing the company's work. Captures the soul of the organizaton. You might achieve a goal or complete a strategy, you cannot fulfill a purpose. Nike's core purpose - to experience the emoton of competton, winning and crushing compettors 3M's core purpose - to solve unsolved problems innovatvely Walt Disney's core purpose - to make people happy Core Values General Electric "I believe that our reputaton for integrity and honorable dealings is our most important asset. Your GE team believes that strong integrity is the foundaton of great performance. I hold myself to a high standard, and I know you will do the same." Jeffrey Immelt, Chairman & CEO Core Values Google \"We're building a culture rooted in transparency, innovaton, and scale.\" Sergey Brin & Larry Page Core Values The Soul of Dell - Dell's success is built on a foundaton of personal and professional integrity. We hold ourselves to standards of ethical behavior that go well beyond legal minimums. We never compromise these standards and we will never ask any member of the Dell team to do so either. We owe this to our customers, suppliers, shareholders and other stakeholders. And we owe it to ourselves because success without integrity is essentally meaningless. Michael Dell, Chairman Core Values People who articulate core values must answer a few questions: What core values do you personally bring to work? What would you tell your children are the core values at work and that you hope they will hold at work someday? If you awoke tomorrow with enough money to retre, would you contnue to live those core values? If you start a new organizaton, what core values would you build into the new organizaton? Core Values of Carroll School of Management Honesty & Integrity, We are committed to promotng the highest standards of honesty and integrity Mutual Respect, We are committed to fostering an environment in which every member of our community nurtures the spirit of trust, teamwork, openness and respect Pursuit of Excellence, We are committed to creatng an environment where all members of the community pursue the highest possible level of academic performance and personal development. Personal Accountability, We are committed to fostering an environment where every member of the community understands and accepts responsibility for upholding and reinforcing our values Why are Core Values Important? There is a need for alignment between personal values and organizatonal values When there is misalignment, bad things usually happen When there is alignment, your potental increases significantly Globalization An unprecedented compression of tme and space reflected in the tremendous intensificaton of social, politcal, economic, and cultural interconnectons and interdependencies on a global scale. Globalizaton is a process of economic, politcal and cultural integraton and unificaton. Globalizaton involves many countries and majority of huge enterprises. Main Advantages of Globalization Advantages Developing international trade and companies Enhancing information speed Reducing the probability of beginning a war Main DisadvantagesDisadvantages of Globalization Unemployment Great dependence of one country on others Extreme pollution of environment Individual Differences: The ways in which people are similar and how they differ in their thinking, feeling, and behavior. Identfies where behavioral tendencies are similar and different. The best teams often result from different skills and approaches. Self-Awareness: Being aware of your own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalites... Awareness of Others: Being aware of others' behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalites... Self-Concept: The view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, spiritual, and moral beings. The way an individual recognizes himself as a distnct human being. The way in which an individual integrates and organizes personality and traits into the self. Greatly influenced by culture. Consists of self-esteem and self-efficacy. Self-Esteem: A belief about one's own worth based on overall self-evaluaton. Those with high self-esteem see themselves as capable, worthwhile, and acceptable and tend to have few doubts about themselves. ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE INTRODUCTION Work Ethics: A group of moral principles, standards of behavior, or set of values regarding proper conduct in the workplace ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE Relatonships at Work Management/owner toward client/customer Management/owner toward employees Employee toward Employer, Co-workers, Customers ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE Business Abuse Any : illegal unethical irresponsible Act done against an Employer ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE Results of Business Abuse Higher prices Business Failure Fewer Jobs Unpleasant Working Conditions ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE A. Examples of Business Abuse Stealing Merchandise Money * Shoplift *Kickback * Conflict of Interest * Unauthorized Discounts Time ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE A. Examples of Business Abuse (Contnued) Vandalism Falsify Records Break Confidentiality Ignore Safety Rules Misrepresent Merchandise ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE A. Examples of Business Abuse (Contnued) Poor Client Service Irresponsible Behavior Addictions * drugs * alcohol * tobacco ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE A. Examples of Business Abuse (Contnued) Gossip * Causes poor work environment (morale) * Lowers Productivity ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE 11 Harassment of Co-wks or Clients *Unwelcome sexual advances * Compliance as condition of employment * Interferes w/ wk performance through intimidation ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE How Do We Ratonalize Business Abuse? Everybody does it The co. won't miss it The co. overcharges I'm not paid enough The co. doesn't deserve my loyalty ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE C. How Employers Respond to Business Abuse Increase Security * loss prevention mgmt. * surveillance * Networks/Helplines * threats of prosecution ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE C. How Employers Respond to Business Abuse (Contnued) Increase Employee Loyalty * fair wages & benefits * fair/consistent treatment * recognition for good wk * foster family climate ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE D. As Employees, What Are Our Choices? Ignore Business Abuse Rationalize it away Speak Up Discuss to Clarify Issues Blow the Whistle! ETHICS IN THE WORKPLACE E. If You're Unsure Before You Act -- ASK: Is this legal? Is it against co. policy? Could the action cause loss or harm to anyone? If everyone I knew saw me, would I feel uncomfortable? Ethical decision making process Step 1: Identfy the problem. Step 2: Identfy the potental issues involved. Step 3: Review relevant ethical guidelines. Step 4: Know relevant laws and regulatons. Step 5: Obtain Consultaton. Step 6: Consider possible and probable courses of acton. Step 7: List the consequences of the probable courses of acton. Step 8: Decide on what appears to be the best course of acton. Ethical communication Ethical communication can be defined as communicaton truthfully and honestly. Ethical communicators advocate truthfulness, accuracy, and honesty; as these cultvate and sustain the integrity of ethical communicaton. A person who wants to communicate ethically should understand and respect others before evaluatng and responding to their messages. Ethical communicaton also supports communicaton that consists of consideraton and mutual understanding that respects an individual's characteristcs. In order to actually practce ethical communicaton a person should believe that unethical communicatons threaten the integrity of all communicaton. Furthermore, unethical communicaton can compromise the well being of others (Powers). Ethical communicaton encompasses being honest in all communicatons, keeping confidental informaton confidental, and not discussing the personal or business situatons of others in public or in front of a third party. Good MeansGood EndEthical Behavior The first ethical dilemma discussed earlier is an example of a \"good\" mean leading to a \"good\" end, or what is termed ethical behavior in the ethical matrix. In this case, the presenter developed a clear argument based on facts in an attempt to persuade a client (mean). As a result of signing on with the presenter's company, the client increased her or his share of the market (end). In essence, the presenter had a good mean (persuasive argument) that lead to a good end (increased market share). Behavior that contains both a good mean and a good end is considered ethical behavior. Bad MeansBad EndUnethical Behavior In the second ethical dilemma, we have an example of a \"bad\" mean leading to a \"bad\" end, or what is termed unethical behavior in the ethical matrix. Specifically, in order to gain business, the presenter lied to the client (mean). Unfortunately, after the client was duped into signing with the presenter's company, the client lost part of the market share he or she had before getting involved with the presenter's company (end). In this case, the presenter had a bad mean (lied to client) that lead to a bad end (decreased market share). When a bad mean leads to a bad end, the behavior is considered unethical. The first two quadrants in the ethical matrix are obvious and are easily discerned in the world of business. Often tmes, however, determining the ethical nature of behavior is not as clear as the first two examples. The next two examples provide the last two variatons of means and ends combinatons. Bad MeansGood EndMachiavellian Ethic In the third example, there was a \"bad\" mean that lead to a \"good\" end, or what is termed theMachiavellian ethic in the ethical matrix. In this case, the presenter purposefully lied to the client in an effort to sign the client. After the client signed with the presenter's business, the client's share of the market increased. Here we have a situaton where there was a bad mean (lied to client) that lead to a good end (increased market share). When a bad mean leads to a good end, we refer to this as the Machiavellian ethic. Machiavelli believed that the ends justfy the means. Machiavelli's greatest work, The Prince, written in 1513, created much controversy because Machiavelli wrote that princes should retain absolute control of their lands and should use any means necessary to accomplish this end, including deceit. This noton was so outlandish that Pope Clement VIII described it as heretcal. Some ethicists claim that a bad mean is always unethical while others claim that the end result is what matters when determining the goodness of a behavior. Good MeansBad EndSubjective Ethic In the final ethical scenario, there was a \"good\" mean that lead to a \"bad\" end. In this case, the presenter developed a clear argument based on facts in an attempt to persuade a client (mean), or what is termed the subjective ethic in the ethical matrix. Unfortunately, after the client signed with the presenter's company, the client lost part of the market share he or she had before getting involved with the presenter's company (end). When a good mean (well-honed argument) leads to a bad end (decreased market share), we refer to this as the subjectve ethic. This specific ethical stance is deemed \"subjectve\" because the intent of the presenter is ultmately only known to the presenter. In essence, under the subjectve ethic, there are two possible implicatons. In one case, the presenter used a perfectly good mean (wellhoned and honest argument) to sign the client and then purposefully decreased the client's market share; whereas in the second case the presenter used a good mean and the subsequent decreased market share was an unintended outcome. In the first case there is evidence of malice on the part of the presenter, and in the second case there are uncontrollable outcomes. Destructive Communication Blaming Interruptng Endless Fightng Character Assassinaton Calling in Reinforcements Withdrawal Need to be Right Blaming - Frequently blame each other while trying to find out who is at \"fault\INDIVIDUALS & GROUPS IN ORGANIZATIONS Chapter 5&6 \"Rational" model of the business organization is a structure of formal relationships designed to achieve a goal efficiently. A firm's organizational chart, identifying the formal hierarchies of authority, exemplifies the fundamental reality of the organization TME 7 The Rational Organisation At the bottom of the organization is the operational layer of workers who directly produce the goods or provide the services. Above this are levels of middle managers who direct those below them and are, in turn, directed by those above. At the top of the pyramid is the top management: the CEO, the board of directors, and their staff. 2 This model presupposes that information will be gathered from the lower levels and rise to the top for policy making The glue that holds these layers together is contracts: each employee freely and knowingly agrees to accept the organization's formal authority. employees have a moral responsibility to obey the employer in pursuing the organization's goals, employer has a moral responsibility to provide the employee with the pay and benefits they have promised (including fair working conditions). TME 7 The Rational Organisation 3 Employee's main moral duty is to work toward the goals of the firm. This view is called "the law of agency," which specifies the legal duties of employees toward their employer. The employee, must pursue the firm's goals and do nothing that conflicts with them while working for the firm. TME 7 The Employee's Obligations to the Firm (1) 4 The Employee's Obligations to the Firm (2) might steal outright from the firm, act on a conflict of interest, use his position to leverage illicit benefits out of others through extortion or bribery. TME 7 An employee might fail to live up to this duty in several ways: 5 Conflicts of Interest (1) employees have a private interest in the outcome of a task antagonistic to the firm's interests it might affect the employee's independent judgment on the firm's behalf. The result is that self-interest induces employees to act in ways that may not be in the best interests of the firm. employees hold another job or consultancy outside the firm. TME 7 Conflicts of interest arise when: 6 Conflicts can be either actual or potential Actual conflicts occur when a person discharges his or her duties in a manner prejudicial/harmful to the firm. A potential conflict occurs when a person is merely motivated or tempted to do so. If contractual agreements impose moral duties, then actual conflicts of interest are clearly immoral. Potential conflicts of interest may or may not be ethical, depending on the probability that the employee's judgment will be affected (or seem to be affected) by the conflict of interest. TME 7 Conflicts of Interest (2) 7 Trade Secrets TME 7 Propriety information or "trade secrets" is information that the company owns concerning its activities, which it explicitly indicates that it does not want others to have. Sharing such information is also unethical. 8 Information can lead to other types of unethical behavior. Insider trading, the act of buying or selling company stock on the basis of confidential or proprietary information, is illegal and unethical. Some argue that insider trading is actually ethical and socially beneficial; it does not harm anyone and helps the stock price reflect its true value, they maintain. These arguments ignore basic facts about insider trading: the information being proprietary, does not belong to the trader (stolen property). Research shows that insider trading violates people's rights, based on unjust advantage, harms overall utility of society. TME 7 Insider Trading 9 The Firm's Duties to the Employee a fair wage fair working conditions. Both issues are aspects of the compensation employees receive from their service and relate to the question of whether the employee contracted to take a job freely and knowingly TME 7 A firm's main moral duty to its employees is to provide them with 10 Wages What is the going wage in the industry and the area? What are the firm's capabilities? What is the nature of the job? What are the minimum wage laws? What are the other salaries in the firm? Were wage negotiations fair? What are the local costs of living? TME 7 Setting a fair wage is both important and difficult, so employers will need to consider these factors: 11 Working Conditions: Health & Safety (1) are equally important. Working conditions TME 7 More attention needed on worker safety due to rising occupational accident rates 12 as employees are fully compensated If wages are not proportional to the risks, or the risk is accepted unknowingly, contract between employer and employee is unfair, and Fair working conditions require: TME 7 Working Conditions: Health & Safety (2) Risks are sometimes unavoidable and acceptable, as long Studying and eliminating job risks Compensating for risk Informing worker of known risk Insuring workers against unknown risks 13 value on efficiency, jobs are specialized and job satisfaction can suffer. Jobs can be specialized either horizontally (by restricting the range of tasks contained in the job and increasing the repetition of this narrow range) or vertically (by restricting the range of control and decision-making that the job requires). TME 7 Working Conditions: Job Satisfaction (1) Because Rational model of the organization puts high 14 Working Conditions: Job Satisfaction (2) effects. Job specialization can have debilitating Older workers and workers in urban areas are more tolerant Only about one quarter of workers would choose the same job again if they could start over. Highly specialized work presents a problem of justice Narrowly specialized forms of work are those that require the least skills (specialization means dispense with need for training) Research shows that excessive job specialization can be detrimental to efficiency. TME 7 Not all workers are equally affected by job specialization. 15 Working Conditions: Job Satisfaction (3)specialization, employers To lessen the negative effects of should expand jobs along these five dimensions: Skill variety - the job should require a variety of challenging activities. Task identity - the job should require a whole and identifiable piece of work. Task significance - the job should have an impact on the lives of others. Autonomy - the job should give the worker freedom to determine how he/she will carry it out. Feedback - the worker should get information about the value of his/her efforts. These dimensions suggest deepening most jobs vertically and expanding them horizontally 16 Employee Rights (1) they are centralized decision-making bodies they have power and authority to enforce their decisions on subordinates concerning the distribution of resources, benefits, and burdens. TME 7 Corporate management is similar to a government: Observers hold that this power is comparable that moral limits placed on governmental officials must extend to managers as well. As government must respect the civil rights of citizens, managers must respect the moral rights of employees: the rights to privacy, consent, and freedom of speech, among 17 others. Employees have some certain rights - the right to privacy Because of technical innovations, employees' right to privacy is under attack. This must be balanced against employers' rights to know certain information about their activities. Three elements are relevant when considering this balance: TME 7 The Right to Privacy Relevance - the employer must limit his inquiry to areas that are directly relevant to the issue at hand. Consent - employees must be given the opportunity to give or withhold consent before their private lives are investigated and should be informed of any surveillance. Methods - employers must use ordinary and reasonable methods of 18 inquiry unless circumstances are extraordinary. Workers may think they have freedom of conscience, If they found their firm doing something that harms society, few legal options available if management does nothing Company has legal right to punish employee who informs against the firm with firing or blacklisting. May have a clear violation of an individual's right to freedom of conscience, the law states that employee's duty is to maintain loyalty and confidentiality towards employer TME 7 Freedom of Conscience 19 Whistleblowing Whistle blowing - attempt by employee to disclose wrongdoing in an organization, Take two forms: Internal - reported only to management within organization. External - reported to others (such as governmental agencies or the media). Can have heavy personal costs, justified when there is clear evidence that the firm's activity is seriously harming others reasonable attempts to prevent it by informing management have failed, reasonably certain that whistle blowing will prevent the harm the harm is serious enough to justify the injuries it will bring upon the whistleblower. 20 Groups in Organizations Small-group experiences individual involvement in the formal and informal groups formed within organizations for task or social support. Groups in Organizations Small Group Experiences Group - \"a collection of more than two persons who perceive themselves as a group, possess a common fate/goal, have organizational structure, and communicate over time to achieve personal and group goals\" Groups in Organizations Small Group Experiences This definition places communication relationships at the core of group activity. As such, groups can be understood in terms of how they are formed and structured, how individuals understand their dependence on one another, and how members communicate. Small Group Experiences Organizational Needs Task efficiency Problem-solving Planning Negotiation Small Group Experiences Groups also contribute to establishing the shared realities of the organization. Expectation of conduct Rules Types of Groups Long-standing teams - relatively permanent groups of individuals organized for task accomplishment. develop ways of doing things that not only make qualifications for new members clear but also identify expected behaviors for members. Can limit creativity and change Types of Groups Project teams - work group established for the duration of a specific assignment. Highly specialized individuals Little history and few traditions Need to establish trust and relationships Types of Groups Prefab groups - work group designed and structured for frequent replacement of members. Prefab groups have detailed individual assignments requiring limited experience to produce specified products. Types of Groups Self-managing teams - a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, have a defined set of performance goals, and who execute an approach for which they hold themselves accountable. Types of Groups Directional groups - groups formally charged and structured to provide overall direction and oversight of the organization. Executive teams Types of Groups Quality teams - groups charged with responding to quality or quantity problems and to issues raised by management. Quality circles (Deming) in Japan Have made documented improvements in productivity Types of Groups Task force groups - groups composed of individuals with diverse specialties and group memberships who are charged with accomplishing a specifically designed task or project. Make recommendations Types of Groups Steering committees - groups of individuals with diverse specialties and group memberships who are charged with implementing organizational plans, processes, or change. Types of Groups Focus groups - collections of individuals who have familiarity with a problem or issue and are asked in a somewhat nonstructured format to describe the issue and make recommendations; formed to discuss problems but not take responsibility for final recommendations or implementation of change. Types of Groups Geographically diverse groups - groups of individuals who form a work team but are separated in distance and linked through technology. This reality underscores the importance of a combination of human and technological communication competencies. Types of Groups Social support groups - formed as subgroups of larger task groups or among people with similar organizational interests; function to stimulate trust and cohesiveness among group members. Groups in Organizations Team-based organization - organizational structures with fewer managers and networks of self-managing teams. Team-based organizations alter the way in which work is organized, supervised, and rewarded, whereas teamwork is the interactional process through which work is accomplished. Team-Based Organizations Research indicates team-based organizations generally outperform more hierarchically organized structures in terms of product and service output, less absenteeism, fewer industrial accidents, more worker flexibility, quality improvements, and overall employee job satisfaction. Team-Based Organizations More innovative, able to share information, involved, and task-skilled than more traditional organizational structures By 2010 over 75% of work force Four aspects of organizational life: goals, roles, relationships, and processes Team-Based Organizations In essence, team members assume many of the supervision responsibilities formerly residing with management. Team-Based Organizations These processes require highly developed communication competencies from all team members. In a recent national employer survey, team skills were listed as a major requirement for college graduates and also a major deficiency as employers evaluated their new college hires. Team-Based Organizations Team skills usually are divided into two categories Task roles Maintenance roles Issues Complex mixture of competencies Career advancement less understood Team-Based Organizations Self-Limiting Behaviors Presence of someone with expertise The presentation of a compelling argument Lacking confidence in one's ability An unimportant or meaningless decision Pressure from others to conform to the team's decision A dysfunctional decision-making climate Team-Based Organizations Workplace democracy - principles and practices which emphasize employee goals, feelings, and participation. Groups in Organizations Individuals in Groups The more positive we feel about our personal communication competencies, the better able we are to work in groups successfully. Groups in Organizations Individuals in Groups Rhetorically sensitive - quality that describes individual acceptance of personal complexity, avoidance of communicative rigidity, interaction consciousness, appreciation of the communicability of ideas, and tolerance for inventional searching. Group Development Group stages - concept that groups progress through sequences such as formation, production, resolution, and dissolution; frequently described as Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning. Group Development Group norms - unwritten behavior rules, ways of doing things, that groups develop over time. Norms reflect what groups deem as desirable and can be said to be cultural beliefs about effectiveness or appropriateness. Group Development Group communication roles Task Roles Maintenance Roles Self-centered Roles categories for description of behaviors which individuals exhibit in groups. Task roles - communication roles that help groups accomplish goals. Group Development Task Roles - communication roles that help groups accomplish goals Initiator Information Requestor Information Giver Procedure Facilitator Opinion Requestor Opinion Giver Clarifier Summarizer-Evaluator Group Development Maintenance roles - communication roles that promote social support among group members. Social Supporter Harmonizer Tension Reliever Energizer Leader Follower Compromiser Gatekeeper Group Development Self-centered roles - communication roles that support individuals' goals and may or may not be compatible with overall group goals and relationships. Negative Blocker Dominator Attacker Clown Group Development Generally speaking, group, task, and maintenance roles are considered productive for group interaction, whereas self-centered roles are destructive and contribute to ineffectiveness. Group Development Influences on Group Members We are most comfortable in groups in which group goals and our individual goals are compatible. Most are attracted to groups with high prestige or in which we have prestige. Group Development Influences on Group Members Group participation is influenced by the overall climate of a group, the degree of interaction among group members, and the overall size of the group. Groups are more attractive as participation among members increases and the overall size of the group remains relatively small Group Development Influences on Group Members Fulk found that an individual's attraction to the group was related to the use of technology. In her study of e-mail use, Fulk found that technology-related attitudes and behaviors were stronger when individuals were attracted to their work groups. Increasing Group Participation Effectiveness People believe decisions are most likely to be of high quality when group members participate fully in the process, when the group climate is characterized by the presence of respectful behaviors and the absence of negative socioemotional behaviors, and when information and solutions offered in groups are analyzed by group members. (Mayer) Increasing Group Participation Effectiveness Negative Participation Behaviors Arguing stubbornly for own ideas Suppress differences of opinion Work for quick agreement Pit one person against another Use power to get others to agree with you Increasing Group Participation Effectiveness Positive Participation Behaviors Be prepared and informed Exhibit cooperative behaviors Value diverse opinions Contribute ideas and seek information Attempt to remain rational Observe the participation process Actively participate Increasing Group Participation Effectiveness Positive Participation Behaviors Stress group productivity Avoid \"role ruts\" Avoid self-centered roles Ease tensions Support leadership Build group pride Produce results NOT INCLUDED: 17, 21, 38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 53, 54,57 Chapter 07 Leadership and Management Learning Goals Understand leadership as an influence process in organizations Distinguish between leadership and management Distinguish the trait, behavioral, and contingency theories of leadership Learning Goals (Cont.) Discuss some alternative views of leadership Analyze the effects of self-managing teams on leadership Appreciate some international and ethical issues that surround leadership and management Chapter Overview Introduction Management and Leadership Trait Approaches to Leadership Behavioral Theories of Leadership Contingency Theories of Leadership Alternative Views of Leadership Chapter Overview (Cont.) Implicit Leadership Theory: \"We Know a Leader When We See One\" Women, Men, and Leadership Leadership and Self-Managing Teams International Aspects of Leadership and Management Ethical Issues in Leadership and Management Introduction Leadership What is leadership? What comes to your mind when you see this word? Introduction (Cont.) Leadership Social influence process of involving two or more people Leader Follower Potential follower Introduction (Cont.) Leadership (cont.) Two dimensions Leader intends to affect behavior of another person Target of influence effort perceives intent as acceptable Target must attribute behavior to a specific person Consider the behavior acceptable Introduction (Cont.) Find leaders in different places in organizations Formal organization position Personal qualities add o