Step 1: Identify the causal statements

• To determine the threats to internal validity, one must discern the causal statements made
• Identify the research design that is used to control for alternative explanations

Step 2: Identify researchers' methods of ruling out alternative explanations

Step 3: Evaluate the causal statements using the 13 threats to internal validity

• History: any event that may affect the participants and offer alternative explanations for the differences between groups
• Maturation: The effects of normal developmental processes that impact the differences observed betweenpreandposttests
• Testing: Increases or improvements in scores due to familiarity with the test, Recall of previous items, only an issue when giving both apreandpost-test