UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR 15 COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Identify the focus and goals of individual behavior within organizations. Explain the role that attitudes play in job performance. Describe different personality theories. Know how to be more self-aware. Describe perception and factors that influence it. Discuss learning theories and their relevance in shaping behavior. Develop your skill at shaping behavior. Discuss contemporary issues in organizational behavior. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 2 FOCUS AND GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Behavior - the actions of people. Organizational behavior - the study of the actions of people at work. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 3 EXHIBIT 15-1 ORGANIZATION AS ICEBERG COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 4 FOCUS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Organizational behavior focuses on three major areas: 1. Individual behavior including attitudes, personality, perception, learning, and motivation. 2. Group behavior including norms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflict. 3. Organizational aspects including structure, culture, and human resource policies and practices. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 5 GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR The goals of OB are to explain, predict, and influence behaviors such as - Employee productivity - a performance measure of both efficiency and effectiveness. - Absenteeism - the failure to show up for work. - Turnover - the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 6 GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.) Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) - discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements, but which promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Job satisfaction - an employee's general attitude toward his or her job. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 7 GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.) Workplace misbehavior - any intentional employee behavior that is potentially damaging to the organization or to individuals within the organization. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 8 ATTITUDES AND JOB PERFORMANCE Attitudes - evaluative statements, either favorable or unfavorable, concerning objects, people, or events. - An attitude is made up of three components: cognition, affect, and behavior. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 9 ATTITUDES AND JOB PERFORMANCE (CONT.) Cognitive component - that part of an attitude that's made up of the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information held by a person. Affective component - that part of an attitude that's the emotional or feeling part. Behavioral component - that part of an attitude that refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 10 JOB SATISFACTION A person with a high level of job satisfaction has a positive attitude toward his or her job. A person who is dissatisfied has a negative attitude. Job satisfaction is linked to productivity, absenteeism, turnover, customer satisfaction, OCB, and workplace misbehavior. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 11 JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT Job involvement - the degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance to be important to selfworth. Organizational commitment - the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in that organization. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 12 JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT (CONT.) Perceived organizational support - employees' general belief that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 13 EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT Employee engagement - when employees are connected to, satisfied with, and enthusiastic about their jobs. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 14 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY Cognitive dissonance - any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. Attitude surveys - surveys that elicit responses from employees through questions about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or the organization. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 15 EXHIBIT 15-2 SAMPLE EMPLOYEE ATTITUDE SURVEY COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 16 PERSONALITY Personality - the unique combination of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns that affect how a person reacts to situations and interacts with others. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 17 MBTI MBTI- a popular personality-assessment instrument. Classifies individuals as exhibiting a preference in four categories: 1. Extraversion or introversion (E or I) 2. Sensing or intuition (S or N) 3. Thinking or feeling (T or F) 4. Judging or perceiving (J or P). COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 18 EXHIBIT 15-3 EXAMPLES OF MBTI PERSONALITY TYPES COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 19 THE BIG FIVE MODEL Big Five Model - a personality trait model that includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Emotional stability Openness to experience COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 20 ADDITIONAL PERSONALITY INSIGHTS Locus of control - the degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate. Machiavellianism - a measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends justify means. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 21 ADDITIONAL PERSONALITY INSIGHTS (CONT.) Self-esteem - an individual's degree of like or dislike for him/herself. Self-monitoring - a personality trait that measures the ability to adjust behavior to external situational factors. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 22 OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS Proactive personality - a trait belonging to people who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. Resilience - an individual's ability to overcome challenges and turn them into opportunities. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 23 EMOTIONS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Emotions - intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Emotional Intelligence (EI) - the ability to notice and to manage emotional cues and information. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 24 FIVE DIMENSIONS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI) Emotional Intelligence (EI) is composed of five dimensions: Self-awareness: The ability to be aware of what you're feeling. 2. Self-management: The ability to manage one's own emotions and impulses. 3. Self-motivation: The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures. 1. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 25 FIVE DIMENSIONS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI) (CONT.) Empathy: The ability to sense how others are feeling. 5. Social skills: The ability to handle the emotions of others. 4. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 26 EXHIBIT 15-4 HOLLAND'S PERSONALITY-JOB FIT COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 27 PERCEPTION Perception - a process by which we give meaning to our environment by organizing and interpreting sensory impressions. A number of factors act to shape and sometimes distort perception including: - Perceiver - Target - Situation COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 28 EXHIBIT 15-5 WHAT DO YOU SEE? COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 29 ATTRIBUTION THEORY Attribution Theory - how the actions of individuals are perceived by others depends on what meaning (causation) we attribute to a given behavior. - Attribution depends on three factors: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 30 ATTRIBUTION THEORY (CONT.) Fundamental attribution error - the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and to overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors. Self-serving bias - the tendency of individuals to attribute their successes to internal factors while blaming personal failures on external factors. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 31 EXHIBIT 15-6 ATTRIBUTION THEORY COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 32 SHORTCUTS USED IN JUDGING OTHERS Assumed similarity - the assumption that others are like oneself. Stereotyping - judging a person on the basis of one's perception of a group to which he or she belongs. Halo effect - a general impression of an individual based on a single characteristic. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 33 LEARNING Learning - any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Two theories of learning: - Operant conditioning - Social learning COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 34 OPERANT CONDITIONING Operant conditioning - a theory of learning that says behavior is a function of its consequences. - Behaviors are learned by making rewards contingent to behaviors. - Behavior that is rewarded (positively reinforced) is likely to be repeated. - Behavior that is punished or ignored is less likely to be repeated. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 35 SOCIAL LEARNING Social learning theory - a theory of learning that says people can learn through observation and direct experience. - The influence that these models have on an individual is determined by four processes: 1. Attentional processes 2. Retention processes 3. Motor reproduction processes 4. Reinforcement processes COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 36 SHAPING: A MANAGERIAL TOOL Shaping behavior - the process of guiding learning in graduated steps using reinforcement or lack of reinforcement. Positive reinforcement: rewarding desired behaviors Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant consequence once the desired behavior is exhibited Punishment: penalizing an undesired behavior Extinction: eliminating a reinforcement for an undesired behavior COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 37 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Managing Generational Differences in the Workplace - Gen Y: individuals born after 1978 Bring new attitudes to the workplace that reflect wide arrays of experiences and opportunities Want to work, but don't want work to be their life Challenge the status quo Have grown up with technology COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 38 MANAGING NEGATIVE BEHAVIOR IN THE WORKPLACE What can managers do to manage negative behavior in the workplace? - Screening potential employees for certain personality traits. - Responding immediately and decisively to unacceptable negative behaviors. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 15 - 39 MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES 16 COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Define motivation. 2. Compare and contrast early theories of motivation. 3. Compare and contrast contemporary theories of motivation. Develop your skill at motivating employees. 4. Discuss current issues in motivation. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 2 WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivation - the process by which a person's efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal. - energy is a measure of intensity, drive, and vigor - effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization - we want employees to persist in putting forth effort COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 3 EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs McGregor's Theories X and Y Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory McClelland's Three Needs Theory COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 4 MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY Hierarchy of needs theory - Maslow's theory that human needsphysiological, safety, social, esteem, and selfactualizationform a sort of hierarchy. Physiological needs - a person's needs for food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and other physical needs. 16 - 5 COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY (CONT.) Safety needs - a person's needs for security and protection from physical and emotional harm. Social needs - a person's needs for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 6 MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY (CONT.) Esteem needs - a person's needs for internal factors (e.g., self-respect, autonomy, and achievement) and external factors (such as status, recognition, and attention). Self-actualization needs - a person's need to become what he or she is capable of becoming. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 7 EXHIBIT 16-1 MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 8 MCGREGOR'S THEORY X AND THEORY Y Theory X - the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform. Theory Y - the assumption that employees are creative, enjoy work, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 9 HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory) - the motivation theory that claims that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 10 EXHIBIT 16-2 HERZBERG'S TWO FACTOR THEORY COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 11 HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY (CONT.) Hygiene factors - factors that eliminate job dissatisfaction, but don't motivate. Motivators - factors that increase job satisfaction and motivation. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 12 EXHIBIT 16-3 CONTRASTING VIEWS OF SATISFACTION- DISSATISFACTION COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 13 THREE-NEEDS THEORY Three-needs theory - the motivation theory that sites three acquired (non-innate) needs (achievement, power, and affiliation) as major motives in work. Need for achievement (nAch) - the drive to succeed and excel in relation to a set of standards. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 14 THREE-NEEDS THEORY (CONT.) Need for power (nPow) - the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Need for affiliation (nAff) - the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 15 EXHIBIT 16-4 TAT PICTURES SOURCE COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 16 CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Goal-setting theory - the proposition that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. Self-efficacy - an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 17 EXHIBIT 16-5 GOAL-SETTING THEORY COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 18 REINFORCEMENT THEORY Reinforcement theory - the theory that behavior is a function of its consequences. Reinforcers - consequences immediately following a behavior which increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 19 DESIGNING MOTIVATING JOBS Job design - the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs. Job scope - the number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated. Job enlargement - the horizontal expansion of a job that occurs as a result of increasing job scope. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 20 DESIGNING MOTIVATING JOBS (CONT.) Job enrichment - the vertical expansion of a job that occurs as a result of additional planning and evaluation of responsibilities. Job depth - the degree of control employees have over their work. Job characteristics model (JCM) - a framework for analyzing and designing jobs that identifies five primary core job dimensions, their interrelationships, and their impact on outcomes. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 21 FIVE CORE JOB DIMENSIONS 1. Skill variety, the degree to which a job requires a variety of activities so that an employee can use a number of different skills and talents. 2. Task identity, the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 22 FIVE CORE JOB DIMENSIONS (CONT.) . 3. Task significance, the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. 4. Autonomy, the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 23 FIVE CORE JOB DIMENSIONS (CONT.) 5. Feedback, the degree to which doing work activities required by a job results in an individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 24 EXHIBIT 16-6 JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 25 REDESIGNING JOB DESIGN APPROACHES Relational perspective of work design - an approach to job design that focuses on how people's tasks and jobs are increasingly based on social relationships. Proactive perspective of work design - an approach to job design in which employees take the initiative to change how their work is performed. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 26 REDESIGNING JOB DESIGN APPROACHES (CONT.) High-involvement work practices - work practices designed to elicit greater input or involvement from workers. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 27 EQUITY THEORY Equity theory - the theory that an employee compares his or her job's input-outcome ratio with that of relevant others and then corrects any inequity. Referents - the persons, systems, or selves against which individuals compare themselves to assess equity. Distributive justice - perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 28 EQUITY THEORY (CONT.) Procedural justice - perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 29 EXHIBIT 16-7 EQUITY THEORY COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 30 EXPECTANCY THEORY Expectancy theory - the theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 31 EXPECTANCY THEORY (CONT.) Expectancy Relationships - Expectancy (effort-performance linkage) The perceived probability that an individual's effort will result in a certain level of performance. - Instrumentality The perception that a particular level of performance will result in attaining a desired outcome (reward). - Valence The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward (outcome) to the individual. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 32 EXHIBIT 16-8 EXPECTANCY MODEL COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 33 EXHIBIT 16-9 INTEGRATING CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 34 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION Motivating in Tough Economic Circumstances - The economic recession of the last few years was difficult for many organizations. - Layoffs, tight budgets, minimal or no pay raises, benefit cuts, no bonuses, long hours doing the work of those who had been laid off was the reality that many employees faced. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 35 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION (CONT.) Managing Cross-Cultural Motivational Challenges - Most current motivation theories were developed in the United States by Americans and about Americans. - Managers can't automatically assume motivational programs that work in one geographic location are going to work in others. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 36 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION (CONT.) Motivating Unique Groups of Workers - Compressed workweek Longer daily hours, but fewer days. - Flexible work hours (flextime) Specific weekly hours with varying arrival, departure, lunch and break times around certain core hours during which all employees must be present. - Job Sharing Two or more people split a full-time job. - Telecommuting Employees work from home using computer links. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 37 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION (CONT.) Motivating Professionals - Characteristics of professionals Strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise Loyalty is to their profession, not to the employer Have the need to regularly update their knowledge Don't define their workweek as 8:00 am to 5:00 pm. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 38 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION (CONT.) Motivating Contingent Workers - Opportunity to become a permanent employee - Opportunity for training - Equity in compensation and benefits Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage Employees - Employee recognition programs - Provision of sincere praise COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 39 DESIGNING APPROPRIATE REWARDS PROGRAMS Open-book management - a motivational approach in which an organization's financial statements (the \"books\") are shared with all employees. Employee recognition programs - programs based on personal attention and expression of interest, approval, and appreciation for a job well done. Pay-for-performance programs - variable compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 16 - 40 LECTURE 8- CHAPTER 15 15-1. Contrast the MBTI and the Big Five model. Describe five other personality traits that help explain individual behavior in organizations. 15-2. Describe the key elements of attribution theory. Discuss the fundamental attribution error and self-serving bias. COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. LECTURE 8- CHAPTER 16 16-1. Describe each of the four early theories of motivation. 16-2. What are the different job design approaches to motivation? COPYRIGHT 2016 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC