???????? Give an example of how more knowledge about the causes of gender differences in depression can lead to improved treatment approaches. Women are about twice as likely as men to suffer from clinical depression, about 12% for men versus about 21% for women (Conway et al., 2006; Hyde, Mezulis,

& Abramson, 2008). A greater prevalence of depression among women was found in each of 15 countries from various parts of the world in a recent cross-national study by the World Health

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Investigators believe that a number of factors are involved (Eagly et al., 2012). Hormonal fluctuations may contribute to depression in some cases, but investigators also need to consider the disproportionate burden of stress women in our society tend to shoulder, as well as the individual’s way of coping with emotional distress. Women are more likely than men to experience stressful life factors such as physical and sexual abuse, poverty, single parenthood, and sexism, all of which may increase vulnerability to depression. Depressed women, especially those in young adulthood, tend to report more negative life events than depressed men—events such as loss of loved one’s or changes in life circumstances (Harkness et al., 2010). On the other hand, a recent World Health Organization cross-national study showed that a narrowing of gender differences in major depression may be occurring, perhaps because of a loosening of traditional female gender roles in many cultures (Seedat et al., 2009).

The late psychologist Susan Nolen-Hoeksema focused on gender differences in coping styles. She proposed that women tend to ruminate or brood more about their problems, whereas men are more likely to distract themselves by doing something they enjoy, such as going to a favorite hangout to get their minds off their problems (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2006, 2012). Rumination tends to increase emotional distress, setting the stage for depression and other negative emotions, such as anxiety. But distracting oneself from one’s problems by turning to alcohol or other drugs can lead to substance-related psychological and social problems.