4.1 Suppose that fourth-grade students from a national random sample were classified as either proficient or not proficient in mathematics as well as whether each was a native English speaker (NES). Possible results (loosely based on data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are shown in Table 4.11.

a. Compute the overall odds of proficiency based on these data and interpret this value.

b. Compute the odds of proficiency for those who are native English speakers.

c. Compute the odds of proficiency for those who are not native English speakers.

d. Compute the odds ratio for this table and interpret this value.