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essentials of statistics

Questions and Answers of Essentials Of Statistics

5.19 What are the ways the term independent is used by statisticians?
5.18 We distinguish between probabilities and proportions. How does each capture the likelihood of an outcome?
5.17 Statisticians use terms like trial, outcome, and success in a particular way in reference to probability. What do each of these three terms mean in the context of flipping a coin?
5.16 In your own words, what is expected relative-frequency probability?
5.15 In your own words, what is personal probability?
5.14 How does the confirmation bias lead to the perpetuation of an illusory correlation?
5.13 What is an illusory correlation?
5.12 What is the confirmation bias?
5.11 Ideally, an experiment would use random sampling so that the data would accurately reflect the larger population. For practical reasons, this is difficult to do. How does random assignment help
5.10 What does it mean to replicate research, and how does replication affect our confidence in the findings?
5.9 What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?
5.8 What is a constraints on generality (COG) statement?
5.7 What does WEIRD stand for, and what is the problem that led to the coining of this term?
5.6 What are some of the pros and cons of crowdsourced data?
5.5 What is crowdsourcing in research?
5.4 What is a volunteer sample, and what is the main risk associated with it?
5.3 What is generalizability?
5.2 What is the difference between a random sample and a convenience sample?
5.1 Why do we study samples rather than populations?
4.48 Central tendency and outliers for data on traffic deaths: Below are estimated numbers of annual road traffic deaths for 12 countries based on data from the World Health Organization
4.47 Descriptive statistics and basketball wins: Here are the numbers of wins for the 30 National Basketball Association teams in one season. 60 44 39 29 23 57 50 43 37 27 49 42 37 29 19 56 51 40 33
4.46 Range, world records, and a long chain of friendship bracelets: Guinness World Records reported that, as part of an anti-bullying campaign, elementary school students in Pennsylvania created a
4.45 Standard deviation and a texting intervention for parents of preschoolers: Researchers investigated READY4K, a program in which parents received text messages over an 8-month period (York &
4.44 Median ages and technology companies: In an article titled “Technology Workers Are Young (Really Young),” The New York Times reported median ages for a number of companies (Hardy, 2013). The
4.43 Mean versus median for age at first marriage: The mean age at first marriage was 31.1 years for men and 29.1 years for women in Canada in 2008 (open.canada.ca/en/open-data). The median age at
4.42 Teaching assistants, race, and standard deviations: Researchers reported that the race of the teaching assistants (TAs) for a class had an effect on student outcome (Lusher et al., 2015). They
4.41 Central tendency and outliers from growth-chart data: When the average height or average weight of children is plotted to create growth charts, do you think it would be appropriate to use the
4.40 Outliers, H&M, and designer collaborations: The relatively low-cost Swedish fashion retailer H&M occasionally partners with high-end designers. For example, it collaborated with the Italian
4.39 Outliers, Hurricane Sandy, and a rat infestation: In a New York Times article, reporter Cara Buckley (2013) described the influx of rats inland from the New York City shoreline following the
4.38 Shapes of distributions, chemistry grades, and first-generation college students: David Laude was a chemistry professor at the University of Texas at Austin (and a former underprepared college
4.37 Central tendency and the shapes of distributions: Consider the many possible distributions of grades on a quiz in a statistics class; imagine that the grades could range from 0 to 100. For each
4.36 Statistics versus parameters: For each of the following situations, state whether the mean or median would be a statistic or a parameter. Explain your answer.a. According to Canadian census
4.35 Descriptive statistics for data from the National Survey of Student Engagement: Every year, the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) asks U.S. university students how many 20-page papers
4.34 Range of data for Canadian TV ratings: Numeris (formerly BBM Canada) collects Canadian television ratings data (en.numeris.ca). The following are the average number of viewers per minute (in
4.33 Descriptive statistics in the media: When there is an ad on TV for a body-shaping product (e.g., an abdominal muscle machine), often a person with a wonderful success story is featured in the
4.32 Descriptive statistics in the media: Find an advertisement for an anti-aging product either online or in the print media—the more unbelievable the claims, the better!a. What does the ad
4.31 Mean versus median in “real life”: Briefly describe a real-life situation in which the median is preferable to the mean. Give hypothetical numbers for the mean and median in your
4.30 Measures of central tendency for measures of baseball performance: Here are winning percentages for 11 baseball players for their best 4-year pitching performances: 0.755 0.721 0.708 0.773 0.782
4.29 Outliers, central tendency, and data on wind gusts: There appears to be an outlier in the data for peak wind gust recorded on top of Mount Washington (see the data in Exercise 4.19). Where do
4.28 Measures of central tendency for weather data: The “normal” weather data from the Mount Washington Observatory are broken down by month. Why might you not want to average across all months
4.27 Mean versus median for depression scores: A depression research unit recently assessed seven participants chosen at random from the university population. Is the mean or the median a better
4.26 Mean versus median for temperature data: For the data in Exercise 4.19, the “normal” daily maximum and minimum temperatures recorded at the Mount Washington Observatory are presented for
4.25 Mean versus median for salary data: In Exercises 4.17 and 4.18, we saw how the mean and median changed when an outlier was included in the computations. If you were reporting the “average”
4.24 Here are recent U.S. News & World Report data on acceptance rates at the top 70 national universities. These are the percentages of accepted students out of all students who applied. 6.3 14.0
4.23 Why is the interquartile range you calculated for the previous exercise so much smaller than the range you calculated in Exercise 4.19?
4.22 Using the data presented in Exercise 4.19, calculate the interquartile range for peak wind gust.
4.21 Calculate the interquartile range for the following set of data: 2 5 1 3 3 4 3 6 7 1 4 3 7 2 2 2 8 3 3 12 1
4.20 Calculate the range and the interquartile range for the following set of data. Explain why they are so different.83 99 103 65 66 77 55 82 93 93 108 543 72 109 115 85 92 74 101 98 84
4.19 The Mount Washington Observatory (MWO) in New Hampshire claims to have the world’s worst weather. Below are some data on the weather extremes recorded at the MWO. Month Normal Daily Maximum
4.18 Use the following salary data for this exercise: $44,751 $38,862 $52,000 $51,380 $41,500 $61,774a. Calculate the mean, the median, and the mode.b. Add another salary, $97,582. Calculate the
4.17 Use the following data for this exercise: 15 34 32 46 22 36 34 28 52 28a. Calculate the mean, the median, and the mode.b. Add another data point, 112. Calculate the mean, median, and mode again.
4.16 Find the incorrectly used symbol or symbols in each of the following statements or formulas. For each statement or formula, (1) state which symbol(s) is/are used incorrectly, (2) explain why the
4.15 Why is the standard deviation typically reported, rather than the variance?
4.14 Define the symbols used in the equation for variance: SD2 = Σ(X − M) 2 N
4.13 Explain the concept of standard deviation in your own words.
4.12 At what percentile is the third quartile?
4.11 At what percentile is the first quartile?
4.10 Using your knowledge of how to calculate the median, describe how to calculate the first and third quartiles of your data.
4.9 How does the interquartile range differ from the range?
4.8 In which situations is the mode typically used?
4.7 How do outliers affect the mean and the median?
4.6 What is an outlier?
4.5 Explain why the mean might not be useful for a bimodal or multimodal distribution.
4.4 Explain what is meant by unimodal, bimodal, and multimodal distributions.
4.3 Explain how the mean mathematically balances the distribution.
4.2 The mean can be assessed visually and arithmetically. Describe each method.
4.1 Define the three measures of central tendency: mean, median, and mode.
3.56 Identifying variables and the best graph: For each of the following studies, list (i) the independent variable or variables and how they were operationalized, (ii) the dependent variable or
3.55 Developing research questions from graphs: Graphs not only answer research questions but can also spur new ones. Figure 3-5 depicts the pattern of changing attitudes, as expressed through
3.54 Type of graph describing the effect of romantic songs on ratings of attractiveness: Guéguen, Jacob, and Lamy (2010) wondered if listening to romantic songs would affect the dating behavior of
3.53 Comparing word clouds and subjective well-being: Social science researchers are increasingly using word clouds to convey their results. A research team from the Netherlands asked 66 older adults
3.52 Word clouds and statistics textbooks: The Web site Wordle lets you create your own word clouds (wordle.net/create). (There are a number of other online tools to create word clouds, including
3.51 Critiquing a graph about gun deaths: In this chapter, we learned about graphs that are designed to be unclear. Think about the problems in the graph shown here.a. What is the primary flaw in the
3.50 Interpreting a graph about traffic flow: Go to maps.google.com. On a map of your country, select “Traffic” from the drop-down menu in the upper left corner.a. How is the density and flow of
3.49 Thinking critically about a graph of international students: Researchers surveyed Canadian students on their perceptions of the globalization of their campuses (Lambert & Usher, 2013). The
3.48 Thinking critically about a graph of the frequency of psychology degrees: The American Psychological Association (APA) compiles many statistics about training and careers in the field of
3.47 Interpreting a graph about two kinds of career regrets: The Yerkes–Dodson graph demonstrates that graphs can be used to describe theoretical relations that can be tested. In a study that could
3.46 Graphs in the popular media: Find an article in the popular media (newspaper, magazine, Web site) that includes a graph in addition to the text.a. Briefly summarize the main point of the article
3.45 Creating the perfect graph: What advice would you give to the creator of the following graph? Consider the basic guidelines for a clear graph, for avoiding chartjunk and regarding the ways to
3.44 Software defaults of graphing programs for depicting the “world’s deepest” trash bin: The car company Volkswagen has sponsored a “fun theory” campaign in recent years in which ordinary
3.43 Software defaults of graphing programs and perceptions of health care advice: For this exercise, use the data in the pie chart from the Fitbit report in the previous exercise.a. Create a bar
3.42 Bar graph versus pie chart and perceptions of health care advice: The company that makes Fitbit, the wristband that tracks exercise and sleep, commissioned a report that included the pie chart
3.41 Bar graph versus time series plot of graduate school mentoring: Johnson et al. (2000) conducted a study of mentoring in two types of psychology doctoral programs: experimental and clinical.
3.40 Survey of Earned Doctorates and a dot plot: Use the data from Exercise 2.30 on the average number of years it takes students to complete a doctorate at 41 different universities.a. Construct a
3.38 Bar graph versus Pareto chart of countries’ gross domestic product: In How It Works 3.2, we created a bar graph for the 2012 GDP, in U.S. dollars per capita, for each of the G8 nations. More
3.37 Bar graph of acceptance rates for different types of psychology doctoral programs: The American Psychological Association (Michalski et al., 2016) gathered data from almost 1000 psychology
3.36 Time series plot of organ donations: The Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI) is a nonprofit organization that compiles data from a range of institutions—from governmental
3.35 Scatterplot of gross domestic product and education levels: The Group of Seven (G7) consists of many of the major world economic powers. It meets annually to discuss pressing world problems.
3.34 Scatterplot of daily cycling distances and type of climb: Every summer, the touring company America by Bicycle conducts the “Cross Country Challenge, ” a 7-week bicycle journey across the
3.33 Type of graph for comparative suicide rates: The World Health Organization tracks suicide rates by gender across countries. For example, in 1 year, the rate of suicide per 100,000 men was 17.3
3.32 Type of graph for the effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression: A social worker tracked the depression levels of clients being treated with cognitive-behavioral therapy for
3.31 Graphing the relation between international researchers and the impact of research: Does research from international teams make a bigger splash? Researchers explored whether research conducted
3.30 Students in a statistics course reported the number of hours of sleep they get on a typical weeknight. These data appear below. 5 6.5 6 8 6 6 6 7 5 7 6 6.5 7 6 7 4 8 6a. Create a dot plot of
3.29a. Using the following set of data, construct a dot plot. 3.5 2.0 4.0 3.5 2.0 2.5 4.5 4.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.5 3.5 3.5b. Refer to the dot plot created for part (a). Does it
3.28 The scatterplot in How It Works 3.1 depicts the relation between fertility and life expectancy. Each dot represents a country.a. Approximately, what is the highest life expectancy in years?
3.27 If you had the following range of data for one variable, how might you label the relevant axis? 0.10 0.31 0.27 0.04 0.09 0.22 0.36 0.18
3.26 When creating a graph, we need to make a decision about the numbering of the axes. If you had the following range of data for one variable, how might you label the relevant axis?337 280 279 311
3.25 The following figure presents the enrollment of graduate students at a university, across six fall terms, as a percentage of the total student population.a. What kind of visual display is
3.24 What elements are missing from the graphs in Exercises 3.22 and 3.23?
3.23 Do the data in the graph below show a linear relation, a nonlinear relation, or no relation? Explain.

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